Powers of public authorities. Athens. Solon's reforms. Institutions of Athenian democracy Who were the archons in ancient Greece

History sources Ancient Greece
- Sources on the history of Crete and Achaean Greece, II millennium BC. e.
- Sources on the history of archaic and classical Greece
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  - Sources on the history of archaic and classical Greece - page 3
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- Sources on the history of Greece in the Hellenistic period
  - Sources on the history of Greece in the Hellenistic period - page 2
Historiography of the history of Ancient Greece
- The study of the history of ancient Greece in the XIX - early XX century.
  - The study of the history of ancient Greece in the XIX - early XX century. - page 2
- Russian historiography of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
- Foreign historiography of Ancient Greece of the XX century.
  - Foreign historiography of Ancient Greece of the XX century. - page 2
  - Foreign historiography of Ancient Greece of the XX century. - page 3
- Foreign historiography of the 90s
  - Foreign historiography of the 90s - page 2
- Domestic historiography of antiquity (1917-1990)
  - Domestic historiography of antiquity (1917-1990) - page 2
  - Domestic historiography of antiquity (1917-1990) - page 3
- Domestic historiography of the 90s
Civilization of Minoan Crete
- Prerequisites for the formation of the state in Crete
- First public entities
- Creation of a united common Cretan state
  - Creation of a united common Cretan state - page 2
- Religious views. royal power
- Socio-economic relations
- Cretan maritime power and its decline
Achaean Greece in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Mycenaean civilization
- Greece in the early Helladic period (until the end of the 3rd millennium BC).
- Invasion of the Greek Achaeans. The formation of the first states
- Formation of the Mycenaean civilization
  - Formation of the Mycenaean civilization - page 2
- Socio-economic structure
- Organization of public administration
- Relationships of the Achaean kingdoms
  - Relations between the Achaean kingdoms - page 2
- The decline of the Mycenaean civilization
- Section Conclusion
Homeric (prepolis) period. The decomposition of tribal relations and the creation of the preconditions for the polis system. XI-IX centuries BC e.
- Features of the development of Homeric society
- Socio-economic relations. Slavery
  - Socio-economic relations. Slavery - page 2
- Tribal institutions and the Homeric policy
- Property and social stratification
  - Property and social stratification - page 2
Socio-economic development of Greece. Great Greek colonization
- The state of the Greek economy
  - The state of the Greek economy - page 2
- - The social structure of Greek society - page 2
- Early or older tyranny
- Great Greek colonization
  - Great Greek colonization - page 2
- The birth of a new Greek culture
  - The birth of a new Greek culture - page 2
  - The birth of a new Greek culture - page 3
Peloponnese in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e.
- General conditions for development
- Northern Peloponnese in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e.
  - Northern Peloponnese in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. - page 2
  - Northern Peloponnese in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. - page 3
- Southern Peloponnese in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Early Sparta
  - Southern Peloponnese in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Early Sparta - page 2
  - Southern Peloponnese in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Early Sparta - page 3
Formation of the polis system in Attica
- Athens in the VIII-VII centuries. BC e.
- Solon's reforms. Shaping the foundations of Athenian democracy
  - Solon's reforms. Shaping the foundations of Athenian democracy - page 2
- The tyranny of Peisistratus and the Peisistratids in Athens (560-510 BC)
- Legislation of Cleisthenes. Organization of polis democracy
- Greek polis as a socio-political organism
  - Greek polis as a socio-political organism - page 2
  - Greek polis as a socio-political organism - page 3
Greco-Persian Wars
- Causes of the Greco-Persian Wars. Their periodization
- Rebellion of Miletus and the Greek cities of Asia Minor
- The first Persian invasions of Balkan Greece (492-490 BC)
  - The first Persian invasions of Balkan Greece (492-490 BC) - page 2
- Campaign of Xerxes
  - Campaign of Xerxes - page 2
  - Campaign of Xerxes - page 3
- Organization of the Delian Symmachy (First Athenian Maritime Union)
- Growing tension between Athens and Sparta. Military expedition of Athens to Egypt and the end of the Greco-Persian wars
  - Growing tension between Athens and Sparta. The military expedition of Athens to Egypt and the end of the Greco-Persian wars - page 2
Economy of Greece in V-IV centuries. BC e.
- General features of the Greek economy
- Position in agriculture
- crafts
  - Crafts - page 2
  - Crafts - page 3
- Trade
The social structure of Greek society
- The social structure of Greek society
- Characteristics of classical slavery
  - Characteristics of classic bondage - page 2
  - Characteristics of classic bondage - page 3
- ruling class
- Position of free small producers
  - The position of free small producers - page 2
- Layer of declassed elements
Athenian democracy and Spartan oligarchy as political systems
- General features. The concept of Athenian citizenship
- National Assembly in Athens
- Council of 500 and the Areopagus
- Elected officials
- Jury trial - Helium
- Social policy of Athenian democracy
Government of Sparta
- General features. People's Assembly (apella)
- Gerussia and the College of Ephors
- Institute of royal power. Military positions
- The system of state education of the Spartans
The internal political situation of Greece in the second half of the 5th century. BC e.
- Characteristics of the Peloponnesian Union
- First Athenian Maritime Union
  - First Athenian Maritime Union - page 2
  - First Athenian Maritime Union - page 3
- The foreign policy of the Athenian maritime union in the 40-30s BC. e.
  - The foreign policy of the Athenian maritime union in the 40-30s BC. e. - page 2
Peloponnesian War. 431-404 BC e.
- Causes of the war
- Archidamov's War 431-421 BC e.
  - Archidamov's War 431-421 BC e. - page 2
  - Archidamov's War 431-421 BC e. - page 3
- The second period of the Peloponnesian War (415-404 BC)
  - The second period of the Peloponnesian War (415-404 BC) - page 2
  - The second period of the Peloponnesian War (415-404 BC) - page 3
Greece in the first half of the 4th century BC e. Greek polis crisis
- Socio-economic status
  - Socio-economic status - page 2
  - Socio-economic status - page 3
  - Socio-economic status - page 4
- The increase in social tension in Greece IV century. BC e.
  - The increase in social tension in Greece IV century. BC e. - page 2
  - The increase in social tension in Greece IV century. BC e. - page 3
  - The increase in social tension in Greece IV century. BC e. - page 4
Military and political situation in Greece. The crisis of the polis system of relations
- Hegemony of Sparta in Greece (404-379 BC)
  - Hegemony of Sparta in Greece (404-379 BC) - page 2
  - Hegemony of Sparta in Greece (404-379 BC) - page 3
- Second Athenian Maritime Union. Rise and hegemony of Thebes. (379-355 BC)
  - Second Athenian Maritime Union. Rise and hegemony of Thebes. (379-355 BC) - page 2
  - Second Athenian Maritime Union. Rise and hegemony of Thebes. (379-355 BC) - page 3
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Elected officials

Athens was the political center and hegemon of a large union of Greek cities (the First Athenian Maritime Union in the 5th century BC and the Second Athenian Maritime Union in the 4th century BC). A large population lived in Athens, life was full of various events. This posed many problems for the state in the management and organization of the administrative apparatus.

The competence of the archons was quite wide: the year was named after the first archon, the archons had influence on military affairs, controlled the most important religious ceremonies and festivities, determined the procedure for considering numerous court cases, both private and public, including talent civil rights or accusations of overthrowing the state system.

One of the most authoritative government boards in Athens was the board of 10 strategists. The strategists led the military organization of the Athenian state, recruited troops, commanded them during hostilities, and led the garrisons. The strategists were responsible for military financing, they also disposed of the captured booty. In the conditions of constant wars in the V-IV centuries. BC e. the board of strategists concentrated in their hands the leadership of key issues of state policy, and the most prominent political figures of the Athenian state occupied the post of strategist, and not archon.

Other elected persons also helped the strategists in directing military affairs: 10 taxiarchs who commanded the hoplite contingents, 2 hipparchs - cavalry commanders, 10 philarchs - commanders of smaller cavalry detachments. All these military posts were selected by citizens who had shown the ability to military affairs, who received special training. They were elected by open vote, while all civil positions were appointed by lot. An open vote was supposed to eliminate the risk of choosing a person incompetent or incapable of command for a responsible military post.

The governing bodies also included numerous financial boards, and this is understandable: in the conditions of intensive economic life and active state policy, budgeting, financing numerous events was of particular importance. The financial support of the Athenian army occupied a very large place in the activities of the strategists.

In the system of Athenian democracy, there were several special colleges that led various aspects of financial activity. So, the guardians of the entire state treasury were 10 treasurers of the goddess Athena; the main concern of the 10 flights was the control of revenues to the treasury (from the leasing of state property to the receipt of tax amounts and other revenues); 10 apodects noted in the lists all receipts to the treasury and gave out to officials the sums due to them; 10 logisticians regularly checked the financial statements of officials.

It must be said that the establishment of several financial colleges that control each other was also effective way combat embezzlement and other financial abuses of officials. Such a system, if not completely eliminated, then minimized corruption, the possibility of embezzlement of public funds.

In Athens, there were also many different colleges of magistrates, the main functions of which were the organization of the management of inner city life. 10 astynomes monitored the sanitary condition of the city, 10 agoranoms observed the observance of the rules of market trade, 10 metronomes were responsible for the correctness of measures and weights, 10 sitophilaks, bread overseers, constantly monitored the prices of bread (the importance of this board is evidenced by the fact that in the middle IV century BC the number of its members increased from 10 to 35: 20 supervised the grain trade in Athens, and 15 - in Piraeus.)

Police functions, including the supervision of prisons, the execution of death and other sentences, were carried out by an 11-member collegium. At their disposal was a detachment of 300 state slaves armed with bows, who were called Scythian arrows (although there could be slaves of other nationalities). Other boards of officials were also elected. According to Aristotle, up to 700 different officials were elected annually to the college in Athens.

In general, it was a rather numerous, branched administrative apparatus. But it was not bureaucratic, separated from the mass of Athenian citizenship. First of all, all boards of officials were elected for only one year. It was forbidden to be elected to the same position twice (an exception was made for the military). All magistracies were collegiate, and the possibility of concentrating power in one hand was excluded.

In Athens, a democratic election procedure was adopted: in addition to military magistracies, candidates for all other positions were chosen by lot from representatives of all property categories, including poor citizens. For the departure of magistracy, a fee was set in the amount of the daily wage of an artisan or slightly higher (from 3 to 5 obols), which provided real conditions for participation in the management of citizens of the lowest property category.

Since re-election was excluded, and the boards were numerous, practically every citizen could be elected to one or more posts and thereby take a direct part in the state administration of his policy.

It is important to consider the powers of the authorities state power on the example of the ancient Greek states of Athens and Sparta.

Athenian democracy is considered the most developed, the most complete and the most perfect form of the democratic system of ancient states. The golden age of Athenian democracy was the century from the middle of the 5th to the middle of the 4th century. BC. The formation of the system of political organs of the Athenian democracy was the result of a long historical period since the reforms of Solon.

The state apparatus of Athens consisted of the following authorities: the People's Assembly, the Council of Five Hundred, the heliai, the college of strategists and the college of archons.

People's Assembly (ekklesia) was the main - sovereign and legislative - body of the Athenian state. All citizens, regardless of their property status, who lived in the city of Athens, Piraeus, Attica, and other territories that were part of the Athenian state (for example, residents of the islands) gathered at the National Assembly. Women were not allowed to participate in political and public life.

The powers of the People's Assembly were very broad: they covered almost all aspects of the life of the Athenian policy. Here they adopted laws, resolved issues of war and peace, elected officials, heard reports from magistrates at the end of their terms of office, resolved issues of supplying the city with food, discussed and approved the state budget, and supervised the education of young men. The competence of the people's assembly included such an extraordinary event as ostracism.

Of particular importance were the rights of the People's Assembly to protect the fundamental laws. For this purpose, a special collegium for the protection of laws (nomofilaks) was established, which received its powers directly from the National Assembly. It was a special body of "custodians of the laws" that oversaw the strict implementation of Athenian laws by all state bodies.

The decisions of the People's Assembly, which became state laws, usually began with the words "Resolved by the Council and the people." This legal formula shows the great role Council (Bule) in the system of state organs of the Athenian democracy. The council in Athens was just as powerful and authoritative as the National Assembly.

The Council consisted of 500 people, 50 from each of the 10 Athenian phyla. Each member of the Council was chosen by lot from several candidates, which ruled out the possibility of bribery or any pressure from above. Equal representation from each phylum ensured the interests of the population living there.

The most important tasks of the Council of 500 were the organization of the work of people's assemblies and the performance of their functions during breaks between meetings. The Council of 500 was made up of all ranks of Athenian citizenship. Members of the Council were elected for one year, re-election was allowed after several years, so that every year the Council was renewed anew. The competence of the Council included the preparation and discussion of all cases that needed to be resolved at the People's Assembly. He gave a preliminary opinion on the issues under discussion, without which the people could not make a decision. In addition, the Council monitored compliance with the decisions of the People's Assembly, controlled the activities of all officials, heard their reports. An important function of the Council was to organize the construction of the fleet. The Council of Five Hundred also checked (dokimassia) nine archons and candidates for Council members for the next year, supervised all public buildings, and was in charge of the execution of public and state affairs. The Council had the right to bring to trial officials, primarily those guilty of misappropriation of public funds. The verdicts of the Council could be appealed to the Helium.

Along with the Council of 500 in the system of Athenian democracy, there was also Council of the Areopagus . The Areopagus, unlike the Council of 500, was an aristocratic body. It consisted of several dozen members (perhaps up to 60-70 people), co-opted (rather than elected by the people) mainly from among the Athenian aristocrats for life (for a member of the Areopagus, “good education” was required, which implied aristocratic origin). Areopagus in the 5th-4th centuries. BC. became one of the courts - dealt with cases of premeditated murder, arson, violations of religious precepts. The Areopagus was also supposed to oversee the state of morals and the protection of paternal foundations.

Athens was the political center and hegemon of a large union of Greek cities - this posed many problems for the state in managing and organizing the administrative apparatus.

City government was carried out with the help of elected magistracies, special officials. The Council of 500, in turn, directly controlled their activities. The highest magistrates in Athens were colleges of archons and strategists . The College of Nine Archons was one of the oldest government bodies dating back to the 8th century. BC. Nine archons (six thesmothetes, an eponymous archon, a basileus and a polemarch), as well as their secretary, were chosen by lot, one from each phylum. After this procedure, all nine archons were subjected to dokimassia in the Council of Five Hundred. The archons received their final approval in office at the Helium, where voting took place by filing pebbles. The college of archons was in charge of religious, family and moral matters.

The board of ten strategists exercised the supreme leadership and command of all the armed forces of the policy. Accordingly, the higher the importance of the Athenian army and navy in a given period, the more weight the board of strategists had in society.

In general, it was a rather numerous, branched administrative apparatus. But it was not bureaucratic, separated from the mass of Athenian citizenship. First of all, all colleges of officials were elected for only one year. It was forbidden to be elected to the same position twice (an exception was made for the military). All magistracies were collegiate, and the possibility of concentrating power in one hand was excluded.

Under the leadership of the college of archons, the highest judicial body acted - helium , which, in addition to purely judicial functions, also performed the functions of lawmaking. As a judicial body, the heliaia dealt with the private affairs of Athenian citizens, all state affairs, disputes between the allies of Athens and the most significant cases of citizens of the allied states.

As already noted, the functions of heliei went far beyond purely judicial proceedings. Huge political weight was given to this body, first of all, by its participation in the protection of the constitution and legislation. In addition to helia, there were several other judicial bodies in Athens: the Areopagus, 4 colleges of efetes, the court of diets, college 40.

Thus, according to Aristotle, practically all the posts "included in the circle of ordinary government" in Athens were elective. Candidates for them were chosen by lot, with the exception of military posts, as well as "treasurer of military sums, head of the spectacular fund and trustee of water pipes", who were elected by "show of hands".

The wide participation of citizens in the administration of the state was achieved by increasing the number of colleges, their turnover and accountability to the Council of Five Hundred and the National Assembly, as well as by including representatives of all categories of Athenian citizenship in the heliai.

The highest body of state power in Sparta was the People's Assembly of all full-fledged Spartiate citizens. National Assembly (it was called apella ) approved peace treaties and declarations of war, elected officials, military commanders, decided on the inheritance of royal power, if there were no legitimate heirs, approved the release of helots. Major changes in legislation also had to be approved by the Spartan apella. However, in the general system of state bodies, it played a much smaller role compared to the Athenian ecclesia. First of all, because the participants in the appeal could only accept or reject bills, but not discuss them. Only members of the Council of Gerontes and ephors had the right to introduce a bill. The Spartan apella met irregularly, from time to time and by decision of officials. The meeting did not discuss financial issues, did not control the activities of magistrates, did not deal with court cases. Such an order of activity of the People's Assembly created favorable opportunities for the Spartan oligarchy to influence its work, to direct its activities in the right direction. If in Athens the People's Assembly was a body expressing not only formally, but also in reality the interests of the majority of Athenian citizenship, then the apella protected the interests of only its top.

Played a decisive role in the government of Sparta Council of Gerontes, or Gerousia . Gerussia was not subordinated to or controlled by any body. It existed along with the People's Assembly, but was not accountable to it. Moreover, Gerussia had the right to cancel the decisions of the People's Assembly if it considered them incorrect for any reason. If in Athens the Council of 500 was the working body of the ecclesia - it prepared its meetings and formalized decisions, then in Sparta, on the contrary, all decisions were made by the gerusia, only sometimes submitting them for formal approval by the appella. As a sovereign body of state power, Gerussia had almost unlimited competence, she met daily and managed all affairs, including military, financial, judicial, Gerussia could sentence to death, exile from the country, deprivation of civil rights, initiate prosecution even against the Spartan kings, included in its composition. Gerussia received reports from the almighty ephors when they completed their office. Almost all the threads of state administration were concentrated in the hands of the gerontes or were under their control.

No less authoritative body of the Spartan state was college of five ephors ("guards"). Ephors were elected for 1 year by an apella from the entire composition of the Spartans, and not from a narrow circle of the Spartan aristocracy, like the gerons. However, this legal rule was by no means always respected; it was common to elect representatives of noble families to ephors.

The college of ephors had enormous power, Aristotle compares the power of the Spartan ephors with the power of tyrants, the sole rulers of the Greek policies in the 4th century. BC. The College of Ephors was considered an independent body from the Appella and Gerussia. The ephors were responsible for the strength and stability of Spartan legislation in general and therefore had the power to control the actions of officials. Great importance was attached to control over the activities of the Spartan kings. It was the ephors who were supposed to prevent the strengthening of royal power and the development of the Spartan oligarchy into a monarchy. According to the Spartan laws, the ephors once a month took the oath of the kings to observe the existing laws. Two ephors were obliged to accompany the kings during military campaigns, they sought to cause disagreement between the kings, believing that mutual suspicion and enmity would force the kings to control each other. The ephors had the right to bring the kings to the court of the gerussia, they could negotiate with the ambassadors of other states, convene and preside over the meetings of the appeal and even the gerussia. A very important function of the ephors was to monitor the entire system of Spartan education - the basis of the life and behavior of the Spartans. If they found any deviations, they brought to justice both officials and individual citizens.

The competence of the ephors included the functions of supervision and supreme control over the perieks and numerous helots. In particular, when taking office, the ephors had to confirm the old law on the announcement of the so-called cryptia, i.e. consecrated by the ancient custom of war against the helots.

Ruled in Sparta two kings belonging to two dynasties - Agiad and Eurypontides. The origin of these dynasties dates back to ancient times, back to the time of the final settlement of the Dorians in Laconia in the 10th century. BC. In the V-IV centuries. BC, these dynasties represented the two most noble and wealthy families among the Spartan aristocracy. The Spartan kings were not the bearers of the supreme sole power, and the Spartan political system was not a monarchy. Each king enjoyed the same power. Unlike the monarchs, the Spartan kings were subject to the will of the apella, the decisions of the gerusia, of which they were members as ordinary members, but they were subjected to especially strict and daily control by the collegium of ephors. Nevertheless, the Spartan kings had quite a lot of power, and their role in state affairs should not be underestimated. The prerogatives of the kings were the supreme military command and the leadership of a religious cult, and these state functions in the society of Sparta were of particular importance. During military campaigns outside of Sparta, the power of the king as commander-in-chief was completely unlimited. The tsars were members of the Gerussia and, as such, took a real part in the decision of all state affairs. In addition, even in peacetime, the units of the Spartan army (pestilence, suckers, enomotii) retained their structure and, of course, they were dominated, if not legally, then in fact, by the authority of their commander in chief.

Spartan society was a militarized society, and therefore the role of the military element in government was high. The Spartan apella, as the supreme body, was an assembly of Spartan warriors to a greater extent than the popular assembly of Athens or any other Greek policy.

Ancient Athens.

COURT AND PROCESS.

Helots were killed without any trial or investigation. The perieks were also often subjected to extrajudicial reprisals.

judicial powers possessed:

- Gerousia ,

- ephors ,

Partly kings ,

And even popular assembly .

Competence of the judiciary:

Gerusia dealt with criminal cases,

Ephors - civil,

Tsars - cases of inheritance, disputes about the marriage of maiden heirs and the use of roads; they also presided over military courts during military campaigns.

Features of the development of Sparta led to stagnation in the socio-economic and political life of the state. However, the victory over Athens in the Peloponnesian War stimulated the development commodity-money relations in Sparta, which finally led to property differentiation and the growth of social contradictions that weakened the state. Like other Greek policies, Sparta in middle of the 2nd century BC. came under the rule of Rome.

The beginning of the formation of Athenian statehood is usually associated with the activities of the mythical hero - the king Theseus(about 12-11 centuries BC), who held a number of reforms aimed at creating a more centralized state:

a) the unification of 12 small settlements into a single entity with a center in the city of Athens ( sinoykism);

b) the division of the population into 3 groups by profession:

On Eupatrides ("noble", owners of large land plots, monopolists in the political sphere),

- demiurges (artisans, merchants)

AND geomors - peasants;

C) administrative-territorial division into 48 districts - navcrarium , which had primarily military (in the event of war, each district put up a warship with a crew) significance.

Theseus made certain concessions to the common people - according to legend, it was the Athenians who were the first of the Greeks to turn from a people-crowd (Laos) into a people-citizens (demos).

After the Trojan War, Greek aristocrats everywhere stopped choosing kings - basileus, concentrating power in their hands (the last Athenian king Kodr in 1068 BC fell in a battle with the Dorians). Installed in Athens oligarchy.

supreme power:

- Areopagus (Council of Ares Hill)

AND college of 9 archons:

Archon - priest,

Archon - military leader,

Archon - head of civil affairs,

6 archons-custodians of judicial rules.

People's Assembly although it was convened, it did not matter much.

Period of Athenian history 11th to 7th centuries BC.- commonly referred to as dark ages”, since the data on this stage of history are very scarce and contradictory.

The next important step in strengthening the Athenian statehood was reforms held by the archon Solon(near 594 BC.). The reasons for the reforms were the mass enslavement of the free population, which threatened the state with a revolt, as well as the strengthening of contradictions between the rich, but also politically disenfranchised, merchants, shipowners, owners of craft workshops (the Athenian "bourgeoisie") and eupatrides - landowners, often impoverished, but with a monopoly on management state.

To mitigate these contradictions and unite all free people into a single ruling class, deep social and political transformations were required. Started them Solon, elected archon in 594 BC. Although Solon was a Eupatride, he made a fortune in trade and was trusted by the general population. main goal Solon's reforms were to reconcile the interests of various warring factions of the free . So they wore compromise, halfhearted character.

Solon's reforms were an important stage in the formation of the state in Athens, and their results can be compared with a political revolution.

1) First of all, Solon spent SISACHFIUS - debt reform(which means direct intervention in property relations):

The debt of the poor was cancelled.

The Athenians who fell into slavery for debts were freed, and those sold for debts abroad were redeemed.

Debt slavery in Athens was henceforth abolished.

But having allowed, in the interests of the wealthy Athenians, the free sale and purchase of land and the fragmentation of land holdings, he made the further dispossession of the poor inevitable.

2) The name of Solon is also associated CENSUS REFORM, which was aimed at destroying the hereditary privileges of the nobility, replacing the privileges of origin with the privileges of wealth. Solon fixed division of citizens into 4 categories according to property .

The richest citizens were assigned to the first category, the less wealthy - to the second, and so on. Each class had certain political rights:

- public office could occupy only citizens of the first 3 categories,

A office of archon (and therefore a member of the Areopagus) only citizens of the first category.

The poor, who were included in the lowest, 4th category, were still deprived of this right. But they could participate in people's assembly, whose role is growing.

The assembly became:

Making laws

elect officials

And take reports from them.

At the same time, Solon made concessions to both the poor and the Eupatrides, the interests of the former were reflected in the creation of a new judicial authority - HELIEI, to which any Athenian citizen could be elected, regardless of his property status. In the interests of the second (eupatrides), a new government – COUNCIL OF FOURHUNDRED elected from citizens of the first three categories 100 people from each tribe, where tribal traditions and the influence of Eupatrides were still preserved.

The reforms dealt a blow to the tribal organization of power and the privileges of the tribal aristocracy. They were an important step in the formation of political organization in Athens. But the compromise nature of the reforms prevented the resolution of sharp contradictions. The reforms displeased the tribal aristocracy and did not fully satisfy the demos. The struggle between them continued and led after a while to the establishment the tyranny of Peisistratus, and then - his sons ( 560-527 BC.), which consolidated the success of the demos in the fight against the aristocracy and strengthened the political system created by Solon. The existing governing bodies continued to function, but now under the control of the seized power TIRANA. Tyrant in Athens was considered illegal ruler , not necessarily setting a brutal mode.

Peisistratus :

He eased the situation of small landowners by providing them with a loan.

An active foreign policy and the creation of a navy attracted Athenian merchants to his side.

The large scale of the construction of public buildings that adorned the city provided a means of subsistence for the poor.

An important role was played by the observance of the laws in force in Athens.

However, these measures required ever-increasing funds, the replenishment of which was assigned to the rich Athenians, which in the end caused their discontent. With the support of Sparta, who feared the strengthening of Athens, tyranny was overthrown. The subsequent attempt by the aristocracy to seize power ended in failure. Relying on the poor, the rich trade and craft elite of the Athenian slave owners, headed Cleisthenes, expelled the Spartans and secured their victory with new reforms.

Reforms of Cleisthenes held in 509 BC:

1. eliminated in Athens the last remnants of the tribal system.

2. They destroyed the old division of the population into four tribes.

3. Attica was divided into 10 territorial phyla , each of which included 3 located in different places territory (TRITTY):

1) urban,

2) coastal

3) agricultural.

They were divided into DEMS.

Such a structure of phyla undermined the political positions of the landed aristocracy, since the first two territories were dominated by trade and craft strata of slave owners. The peasantry was freed from the influence of ancient tribal traditions, on which the authority of the nobility was based, and those who were not part of the local tribal organization received access to participate in a political position. The territorial principle of division of the population replaced the consanguineous principle. .

4. Cleisthenes abolished the Council of Four Hundred and on the basis of the newly created territorial organization of the population established COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED, formed from representatives of 10 phyla, 50 people from each . The council directed the political life of Athens in the period between the convocations of the national assembly and carried out the implementation of its decisions.

5. Another body was created - BOARD OF 10 STRATEGIES, which was also completed taking into account the territorial organization of the population: one representative from each phylum. Initially, the strategists had only military functions, but later they pushed the archons into the background and became the highest officials of the Athenian state.

6. In order to prevent attempts by the aristocracy to restore the old order, under Cleisthenes, the practice of public meetings was introduced special procedure , named OSTRACISM. Every year, a people's assembly was convened, which determined by voting whether there were any such persons among fellow citizens who were dangerous to the state. If such persons were named, the meeting was convened a second time, and each of its participants wrote on the ostracon (clay shard) the name of the one who, in his opinion, was dangerous. Convicted by majority vote was removed from Attica for a period of 10 years.

Ostracism, initially directed against the tribal aristocracy, was subsequently used in the political struggle between the various factions that existed in Athenian society.

The reforms of Cleisthenes completed the long process of state formation in Ancient Athens. IN 5th c. BC. reforms of Pericles And Ephialta wages were introduced to state officials, and the Areopagus (the last support of the aristocracy) was deprived of political functions, turning into a judicial body. In the 5th-4th centuries. BC. Athens reaches its highest peak - military, economic, cultural.

The state system of the Athenian Republic in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e.

During the period of the highest prosperity of Athens, the form of the state was as follows:

1) form of government - republic(most state bodies and positions are elected, replaceable and urgent);

2) shape state structure - policy(a tiny state with an area of several tens of square meters, in accordance with modern terminology - unitary);

3) political regime - democratic(all citizens have, at least formally, equal rights to govern the state and could take an active part in political life). Democracy finally took shape 5th century BC. and lasted (with some interruptions) until 30s of the IV century. BC.

In the Athenian Republic began to take shape power sharing system on the:

Legislative,

Executive

And judicial

in which the branches of government have different competences and opportunities to influence each other (= system of checks and balances???). However, in Athens, the principle of separation of powers was not fully implemented, many bodies duplicated the functions of each other (especially the people's assembly - the ekklesia - which was both a legislative, a judicial, and a controlling body). Nevertheless, the system of authorities in the republic presented the following picture.

The main organs of the Athenian state were:

people's assembly,

council of five hundred

They directed and supervised the activities of officials.

PEOPLE'S ASSEMBLY- the supreme authority of Athens. It met at first 10, and later - 40 times a year. under special circumstances (unexpected enemy attack, natural disaster) could be called extreme "gathering of horror and confusion" .

Competence The National Assembly was extensive:

It made laws

Issued resolutions on private matters ( psephisms),

Elected officials and audited their activities,

Dealing with issues of war and peace

Discussed the food situation of the country

- Special meetings devoted to considering the requests of citizens and resolving the issue of expulsion of individuals by way of ostracism from the state.

Compound. Only full-fledged Athenian citizens who had reached 20 years of age. Women and meteks were not allowed in the national assembly. As a rule, peasants employed in their farms rarely participated in its activities, although, starting from 4th century BC., for attending the meeting was supposed to be rewarded. To resolve even the most important issues, the presence of everything was required. 6000 people, that is, approximately 1/5 of all full Athenians.

The agenda of each meeting was determined in advance. One of the meetings of each month was considered main:

It checked the activities of officials,

Discussed the food situation, etc.

Main meeting of the sixth month, Besides:

Decided the issue of ostracism,

official accusations.

The other three meetings of the month considered:

Complaints from citizens

religious,

Administrative

And other questions.

Each participant formally could speak in the national assembly and introduce drafts of new laws.. In practice, speeches were made mainly professional speakers - demagogues , defending the interests of certain groups of free.

Bills were previously hung out for public viewing and submitted to the discussion of the people's assembly after their consideration in the Council of Five Hundred, which gave an opinion on each bill. The bill was voted on by a show of hands.

An important means used to ensure the stability of the legislation was the right of any participant in the meeting, referring to the illegality of the proposed bill, to demand that it be removed from discussion or vote under the threat of bringing the author to court. In addition, the chairman of the national assembly could not put to the vote those proposals that, from his point of view, were illegal.

A bill passed by the people's assembly becomes law only if it is not subsequently rejected by the Helium.

IN COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED (bule) included 50 people from each of the ten territorial phyla. Council members (boolevts) were chosen by lot on 1 year of citizens who have reached 30 years.

TO competencies Council were management issues:

Carrying out diplomatic relations with other states,

Financial management,

Supervision of arsenals, docks, fleet,

trade regulation,

Control over officials.

Officials had the right to speak in the Council and submit their proposals for its consideration.

The most important function Council was preliminary discussion of issues received for consideration by the National Assembly , which allowed the Council to direct the activities of the latter.

To conduct current affairs, the Council was divided into 10 commissions (PRITANY) consisting of 50 representatives of one phylum . The commissions performed the duties of the Council in turn, daily choosing by lot a new chairman of the Council, who during the work of the people's assembly was also its chairman. IN 4th century BC. this order was changed: the chairman began to be elected before each meeting of the Council (meeting).

At the end of his term of service, each member of the Council of Five Hundred was accountable for his activities and could be held accountable.

HELIUM was the highest judicial body of the state and consisted of 5000 judges And 1000 spare: 600 people from each of the 10 territorial fil. The members of the gelia were elected by lot on 1 year of citizens who have reached 30 years.

As part of the helium functioned 10 colleges, each of which had 500 judges and 100 substitutes. In order to prevent possible abuses, the colleges did not know when they would be called to duty. It was decided by lot on the day of the trial.

Competence of helium:

1) Helia was:

a) the court of first instance on business:

About state crimes

And about the abuses of officials

b) And court of appeal in cases before other courts.

2) She also carried out some control functions

3) and had the important right to reject bills passed by the people's assembly.

Thus, legislative process Ancient Athens had the following stages:

a) the submission of a bill for discussion in the national assembly as a legislative initiative, which every full-fledged Athenian citizen had;

b) preliminary consideration of the bill by the Council of Five Hundred and giving an opinion on it for the people's assembly;

c) the adoption of the bill by the people's assembly;

d) the adopted bill could be rejected by the helium.

Officials played an important role in the administration of the Athenian state. Basic principles of replacement of posts:

electivity,

Urgency,

recompense,

Accountability

Collegiality.

Election of officers carried out annually:

Or by lot .

Before taking office, all the elected were subjected to special scrutiny - DOKIMASIYA, during which it was found out:

Their right to hold office

political integrity

And the necessary personal qualities.

Couldn't take office(except military) twice or two jobs at the same time. The performance of positions was paid (the only exception was strategists). After the expiration of the term, the officials submitted reports on their activities to the Council of Five Hundred and Helium. During the heyday of the Athenian state, the vast majority of posts were collegiate.

chief officials in Athens were:

strategists

Archons.

College of Strategists consisted of 10 members elected by the people's assembly from among married And citizens who had real estate .

Strategists to 5th century BC. received important powers :

1) They began to manage the funds allocated for the maintenance of the army and navy,

2) organize the collection of emergency military taxes,

3) manage the delivery of food to Athens (in peacetime, citizens did not pay permanent taxes, the latter were collected only from meteks).

4) Some powers in the field of diplomatic relations were transferred to them:

They accepted the surrender of the enemy,

They signed a truce.

5) Powers in the field of justice:

They were investigating cases of military crimes

Presided over war crimes courts.

6) Finally, the strategists had the right to demand the convening of extraordinary meetings of the Council of Five Hundred or the People's Assembly and the adoption of urgent measures.

Sometimes he stood out from the strategists AUTOCRATOR

Commander of the army

And in emergency circumstances, he received all the power in the state.

With the growth of the powers of the strategists, the political significance of the archons fell. After the reforms of Solon, 9 archons began to be elected by lot from candidates proposed by the territorial phyla. They rarely acted as a single collegium - when the people's assembly decided on the issue of ostracism and when checking officials.

1) First archon was considered ARCHON-EPONYM, behind which, with the flourishing of Athenian democracy, only judicial functions were preserved in family estates and inheritance cases.

2) Second archon was ARCHONT-BASILEVS. He was in charge of religious affairs and tried criminal cases in court.

3) Next was ARCHON POLEMARCHS, who had lost the functions of military command he previously had and dealt mainly with cases involving metecs and other foreigners (xenos ).

Rest 3 ARCHON-THESMOFETES supervised the administration of justice in the Athenian courts.

Special officials(there were about 700 of them in Athens)

Managed state property

Managed the state treasury

Observed the order on the streets and the morality of citizens,

For trading in the market,

Educated and trained young people who underwent military training

Their officials were in phyla and demes.

In the 4th c. BC. Athens falls under the rule of Macedonia, and in the 2nd century. BC. become one of the provinces of Rome, thus the republic ceases to exist.

The college of archons considered religious and family matters, as well as cases related to moral issues. The collegium included 9 archons and a secretary. Under the leadership of the collegium of archons, the highest judicial body of the Helium operated. She dealt with the most important private affairs of Athenian citizens and all state affairs.

A board of ten strategists led the armed forces of the Athenian state. The strategists were chosen by open vote from among the richest and most influential citizens. And although by law all 10 strategists had equal rights and obligations, there was a tradition that one of the strategists held a position not only in the college of strategists, but also in the state.

The competence of the Council was quite extensive. Members of the Council convened people's assemblies, prepared conclusions on the issues considered at these meetings. The council had the right to bring officials to court, heard their reports, including the archons. The entire financial and administrative apparatus of Athens operated under the guidance and supervision.

The Council of Five Hundred (bule) was a permanent executive body. He was elected by lot by open vote from among full-fledged citizens who have reached the age of 30, 50 representatives from each of the 10 fils. The term of office of council members is 1 year.

The competence of the National Assembly included issues of legislation, domestic policy and international relations, war and peace, the election of the most important officials and control over their activities.

The People's Assembly was the legislative body of the Athenian Republic. All full-fledged Athenian citizens (men), at least 20 years old, regardless of occupation and property status, had the right to participate in the people's assembly.

As a result of all these changes, Athens developed a slave state in the form of a democratic republic.

The further development of the Athenian state is closely connected with the struggle of the broad masses of the people - demos with the domination of the tribal aristocracy, debt slavery and other forms of enslavement. The decisive stages in the formation of new social relations in Athens were the reforms carried out by the archons Solenus and Cleisthenes.

The supreme power belonged to the Areopagus, who replaced the council of elders and the archons, who exercised direct control, administrative, judicial and military power.

The main sources of knowledge about the state and law of Ancient Greece are the writings of the ancient Greek authors Plutarch, Thucydides, Herodotus, Aristotle, as well as monuments of legislation and court decisions that have come down to us.

The history of Ancient Greece dates back to the 1st millennium BC. At this time, there is a decomposition of the primitive system and the emergence of a class society.

The development of productive forces, socio-economic differentiation and the formation of classes led to the emergence in Ancient Greece (VIII-V! centuries BC) of ancient city-states (or policies). The ancient policies, consisting of the city itself and the adjacent rural district, were essentially a community. In the history of ancient Greece, the most important role was played by two policies: Athens and Sparta.

The Athenian state arose on the territory of Attica. Actually, the formation of the state is connected by folk tradition with the name of the Greek hero Theseus, who carried out a number of reforms. As a result, the Athenian society was divided into three social groups: the tribal nobility - eupatrides, who had a monopoly on holding public office; simple farmers (geomors) and artisans (demiurges). In addition, a significant part of the population was made up of meteks - people from other communities, personally free, but limited in their political and economic rights.

The main content of Solon's reforms (beginning of the 6th century BC) was the abolition of debt slavery (sisachfia), as well as a change in the political structure of society. In accordance with the new structure, Athenian society was divided into 4 categories based on the property status of citizens: pentakosiamedimnas (five hundred), horsemen, zeugites and fetes. Representatives of the first category could hold any position, zeugites and horsemen could not only be elected archons, fetes had the right only to elect officials, but could not be elected.

The further democratization of the Athenian political system is connected with the reforms of Cleisthenes. The administrative division was changed, which was based solely on the territorial principle. Three districts were subdivided into 10 territorial phyla of three trittia each. New government bodies, the "Council of Five Hundred" and the Collegium of Strategists, were formed.

The state apparatus of the Athenian democracy consisted of the following organs of power: the popular assembly, the heliai, the council of five hundred, the college of strategists and the college of archons.

). In the Byzantine Empire, this title was worn by high-ranking nobles.

Word Archon in many ways had the same meaning as the Slavic word "prince".

Athenian archons

The most famous are the archons in Athens, where this position appeared even under the basileus. According to legend, in the XI century BC. e. royal power was abolished and representatives of the royal family of Codrids became archons for life. In the middle of the 8th century BC. e. Eupatrides gained access to this position and the term of power of the archon was reduced to 10 years, and from the first half of the 7th century BC. e. - up to one year.

The most ancient were the positions of the first archon eponym(head of the executive branch, the year was named after him), the second archon basileus(in charge of the cult), third archon polemarch(was a military leader). Around the middle of the 7th century BC. e. six more archons were added thesmofetes with judicial functions. All nine archons made up the college of senior officials. After the reforms of Solon (VI century BC), members of the highest property category could become archons - pentakosiomedimna, later also hippei, that is, horsemen (second category), from 457/456 BC. e. - zevgits (third category). College of archons in the 5th century BC. e. lost its political significance, remaining as an honorary body that performed various state duties, until the end of the 5th century. n. e. In the classical era, the election of archons was carried out by lot.

Archons in the Byzantine Empire

The status of the archon in Byzantium - the beginning of the XII centuries is not very defined. It was appropriated (perhaps received from Constantinople) by the actual owners of the limitrophe territories that previously belonged to the empire and continue to be considered as such in Constantinople.

In addition, there were positions: Archon of allagia (commander of the imperial cavalry and foot units), Archon of Vlattia (head of the state workshop, where the most valuable fabrics were made and dyed), Archon of salt (head of the imperial salt works, who oversaw the production and wholesale of salt).

Archons in Orthodoxy

After the fall of Byzantium, the title was conferred by the Patriarch of Constantinople, who, under Turkish rule, led the Greek community not only ecclesiastical, but also civil (rum-millet). The title of archon came to mean something like "ecclesiastical nobility".

The very word archon, especially outside the Greek-speaking world, sounds ambiguous. In the Greek original of the Gospel, the expression "άρχων του κόσμου τούτου" (archon to kosmu tutu; in Slavic and Russian translations - "prince of this world") means the devil. Archons in Gnosticism were called evil spirits-world rulers.

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Notes

An excerpt characterizing the Archon

"No, I know it's over," she said hastily. No, it can never be. I am tormented only by the evil that I did to him. Just tell him that I ask him to forgive, forgive, forgive me for everything ... - She shook all over and sat down on a chair.
A never-before-experienced feeling of pity overwhelmed Pierre's soul.
“I will tell him, I will tell him again,” said Pierre; - but ... I would like to know one thing ...
"What to know?" asked Natasha's gaze.
- I would like to know if you loved ... - Pierre did not know what to call Anatole and blushed at the thought of him - did you love this bad man?
“Don’t call him bad,” said Natasha. “But I don’t know anything…” She began to cry again.
And an even greater feeling of pity, tenderness and love swept over Pierre. He heard tears flowing under his glasses and hoped that they would not be noticed.
“Let's not talk anymore, my friend,” said Pierre.
So strange suddenly for Natasha this meek, gentle, sincere voice seemed.
- Let's not talk, my friend, I'll tell him everything; but I ask you one thing - consider me your friend, and if you need help, advice, you just need to pour out your soul to someone - not now, but when it will be clear in your soul - remember me. He took and kissed her hand. “I will be happy if I am able to ...” Pierre was embarrassed.
Don't talk to me like that, I'm not worth it! Natasha screamed and wanted to leave the room, but Pierre held her by the hand. He knew he needed something else to tell her. But when he said this, he was surprised at his own words.
“Stop, stop, your whole life is ahead of you,” he told her.
- For me? No! Everything is gone for me,” she said with shame and self-abasement.
- Everything is lost? he repeated. - If I were not me, but the most beautiful, smartest and best person in the world, and would be free, I would this minute on my knees ask for your hand and love.
Natasha, for the first time after many days, wept with tears of gratitude and tenderness, and looking at Pierre left the room.
Pierre, too, after her, almost ran out into the anteroom, holding back the tears of emotion and happiness that were crushing his throat, put on a fur coat without falling into the sleeves and got into the sleigh.
“Now where are you going?” asked the coachman.
"Where? Pierre asked himself. Where can you go now? Really in a club or guests? All people seemed so pathetic, so poor in comparison with the feeling of tenderness and love that he experienced; in comparison with that softened, grateful look with which she last looked at him through tears.
“Home,” said Pierre, despite ten degrees of frost, opening a bearskin coat on his wide, joyfully breathing chest.
It was cold and clear. Above the dirty, half-dark streets, above the black roofs stood a dark, starry sky. Pierre, only looking at the sky, did not feel the insulting baseness of everything earthly in comparison with the height at which his soul was. At the entrance to the Arbat Square, a huge expanse of starry dark sky opened up to Pierre's eyes. Almost in the middle of this sky above Prechistensky Boulevard, surrounded, sprinkled on all sides with stars, but differing from all in proximity to the earth, white light, and a long tail raised up, stood a huge bright comet of 1812, the same comet that foreshadowed as they said, all sorts of horrors and the end of the world. But in Pierre, this bright star with a long radiant tail did not arouse any terrible feeling. Opposite, Pierre joyfully, with eyes wet with tears, looked at this bright star, which, as if, having flown immeasurable spaces along a parabolic line with inexpressible speed, suddenly, like an arrow piercing the ground, slammed here into one place it had chosen, in the black sky, and stopped, vigorously lifting her tail up, shining and playing with her white light among countless other twinkling stars. It seemed to Pierre that this star fully corresponded to what was in his blossoming towards a new life, softened and encouraged soul.

From the end of 1811, increased armament and concentration of forces in Western Europe began, and in 1812 these forces - millions of people (including those who transported and fed the army) moved from West to East, to the borders of Russia, to which in exactly the same way since 1811 th year, the forces of Russia were drawn together. On June 12, the forces of Western Europe crossed the borders of Russia, and the war began, that is, an event contrary to human reason and all human nature took place. Millions of people have committed against each other such countless atrocities, deceptions, treason, theft, forgery and issuance of false banknotes, robberies, arson and murders, which for centuries will not be collected by the chronicle of all the courts of the world and which, in this period of time, people those who committed them were not looked upon as crimes.