Types of self-esteem: its diagnosis, levels, functions and development. The concept of self-esteem in the works of domestic and foreign psychologists Definition of social character
In modern psychology, the word "self-esteem" is one of the most popular terms. We know that self-esteem must be adequate, that low self-esteem is bad, and so on.
If you understand the essence of this word, self-esteem is, in a different way, “self-esteem”. But what do we mean when we talk about self-esteem? And what is high and low self-esteem?
Self-Esteem Formula
In general, the concept of "self-esteem" was born about 100 years ago, when the famous psychologist William James derived the self-esteem formula:
What does this formula mean? Self-esteem is the ratio of the level of achievement to the level of a person's claims.
This formula means that a person's self-esteem depends on 2 things: on what we have achieved, and on what we would like to achieve.
If we achieve more than we expect, we must have high self-esteem. If we expect more from life than we achieve, we suffer from low self-esteem. At least that's how it should be according to the self-esteem formula.
But there are things that do not fit into this harmonious and logical formula. For example, such concepts as overestimated and underestimated self-esteem.
Heightened self-esteem
A logical question - what about inflated self-esteem? Does it appear on the basis of numerous achievements and minimal expectations (judging by the formula)? Unfortunately no.
The concept of inflated self-esteem is a phenomenon that does not obey this formula. The word "inflated" means exaggerated, which means inadequate.
It is obvious that inflated self-esteem does not appear in people because of a large number of achievements.
People with inflated self-esteem are usually "victims of upbringing" when parents teach a child to value himself "worth its weight in gold" regardless of what he has achieved. And this, of course, is not entirely correct. Why?
Because inflated self-esteem prevents a person from adequately seeing his achievements and evaluating himself objectively. This causes problems both in work and in communication with others.
Low self-esteem
Another concept that does not obey the self-esteem formula is low self-esteem. This is a sadder phenomenon than inflated self-esteem. Why?
Because people with inflated conceit live in "pleasant ignorance." This may not be right, but inflated self-esteem protects many people from depression and anxiety attacks.
What's wrong with low self-esteem?
When a person has low self-esteem, his opinion of himself is much lower than an objective assessment. Often people with low self-esteem are prone to excessive "self-digging" and "self-flagellation" for no reason. It often seems to them that their achievements are still not enough to appreciate themselves highly.
Unfortunately, people with low self-esteem, with all their virtues and achievements, do not value themselves objectively.
Usually, the reasons for low self-esteem lie in upbringing, when parents do not teach the child to appreciate their achievements and be proud of them. As a result, a person does not appreciate himself, even when there are all reasons for this.
Modesty or low self-esteem?
Many people confuse low self-esteem with modesty. What is the difference? A modest person can have both high self-esteem and low self-esteem. A modest person simply “does not shout” about his achievements, but he can be proud of them and have adequate, rather than low, self-esteem.
Results processing
The purpose of processing the results is to determine the relationship between the ranking assessments of personality traits included in the representations of "I" - ideal and "I" real. The measure of connection is established using Ch. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. Scores from 1 to 20 of the proposed qualities in both rows are taken as their ranks. The difference in ranks that determine the place of a particular personality trait makes it possible to calculate the coefficient using the formula:
n - the number of proposed personality traits (n=20);
d is the difference of rank numbers.
To calculate the coefficient, you must first calculate on the form, in a specially designated column, the difference in ranks (d) for each proposed quality. Then each obtained value of the rank difference (d) is squared and the result is recorded on the form in column (d), summed up and the sum (Sd2) is entered into the formula.
If the number of qualities is 20, then the formula has a simplified form:
The rank correlation coefficient (r) can range from –1 to +1. If the obtained coefficient is not less than -0.37 and not more than +0.37 (at p = 0.05), then this indicates a weak insignificant relationship (or its absence) between a person's ideas about the qualities of his ideal and his real qualities. Such an indicator can be caused by non-compliance with the instructions by the subjects. But if the instruction was carried out, then a small connection means a fuzzy and undifferentiated representation by a person of his ideal "I" and "I" of the real one.
The value of the correlation coefficient from +0.38 to +1 is evidence of a significant positive relationship between "I" - ideal and "I" - real. This can be interpreted as a manifestation of adequate self-esteem or, with R from +0.39 to -I), 89, a tendency to overestimate. But, values from +0.9 to +1 often express inadequately high self-esteem. The value of the correlation coefficient in the range from -0.38 to -1 indicates the presence of a significant negative relationship between the "I"-ideal" and "I"-real". It reflects the inconsistency or divergence of a person's ideas about how he needs to be, and what he, in his opinion, really is. This discrepancy is proposed to be interpreted as low self-esteem. The closer the coefficient is to -1, the greater the degree of inconsistency.
The second version of the study
The second version of the self-assessment study is based on the mode of choice. The material is a list of words that characterize individual qualities of a person. This version of the study also consists of two series.
First episode
The task of the first series: to determine the list and number of reference qualities of the desired and undesired image - I. The subject is asked to look at the words from the list and, having chosen, make two rows. In one row, you need to write down the words denoting those personality traits that relate to the subjective ideal, that is, they make up the "positive" set, and in the other row, those qualities that are undesirable, that is, they make up the "negative" set.
Instruction to the subject: "Look carefully at the list of suggested words that characterize a person. In the left column on a piece of paper, write down the qualities that you would like to have, and in the right column, those that you would not like to have. Qualities, the meaning of which You do not understand or which you cannot attribute to one or the other column, do not write anywhere. Do not think about whether you have this quality or not, only one thing is important: do you want to have it or not. "
Second series
The task of the second series is to determine the set of personality traits of the subject, which, in his opinion, are inherent in him, among the selected reference qualities of the "positive" and "negative" set.
Instruction to the subject: "Look carefully at the words you wrote down in the left and right columns and mark with a cross or a tick those qualities that, in your opinion, are inherent in you."
List of personality traits
Accuracy, carelessness, thoughtfulness, irascibility, susceptibility, pride, rudeness, cheerfulness, caring, envy, shyness, vindictiveness, sincerity, sophistication, capriciousness, gullibility, slowness, daydreaming, suspiciousness, vindictiveness, perseverance, tenderness, ease, nervousness, indecision, intemperance, charm, resentment, caution, responsiveness, pedantry, mobility, suspicion, adherence to principles, poetry, contempt, cordiality, swagger, rationality, decisiveness, self-forgetfulness, restraint, compassion, modesty, patience, cowardice, fascination, perseverance, compliance, coldness, enthusiasm.
Results processing
The purpose of processing the results is to obtain self-assessment coefficients for the "positive" (СО+) and "negative" (СО-) sets. To calculate each of the coefficients, the number of qualities in the column, determined by the subject as inherent in him (M), is divided by the total number of qualities in this column (H). The formulas for calculating the coefficients are as follows
М+ М- СО+ = ––; CO– = –– ; where H+ H-
M+ and M- - the number of qualities in the "positive" and "negative" sets, respectively, marked by the subject as inherent in him; H+ and H- - the number of reference qualities, i.e. the number of words in the right and left columns, respectively.
The level and adequacy of self-assessment is determined on the basis of the coefficients obtained using the table.
|
Self-esteem level |
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inadequate, overrated |
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adequate with a tendency to overestimate |
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adequate |
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adequate with a downward trend |
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inadequate, underestimated |
When determining the level of self-esteem and its adequacy, it is important to take into account not only the value of the obtained coefficient, but also the number of qualities that make up a particular set (H+ and H-). The fewer qualities, the more primitive the corresponding standard. In addition, the level of self-esteem in the "positive" and "negative" set of some subjects may not match. This requires special analysis and may be caused by the defense mechanisms of the individual.
Analysis of results
In the two proposed versions of the study of self-esteem, its level and adequacy are defined as the relationship between the ideal "I" and the real "I". A person's ideas about himself, as a rule, seem convincing to him, regardless of whether they are based on objective knowledge or subjective opinion, whether they are true or false. The qualities that a person ascribes to himself are far from always adequate. The process of self-evaluation can take place in two ways: 1) by comparing the level of one's claims with the objective results of one's activities, and 2) by comparing oneself with other people.
However, regardless of whether self-esteem is based on a person’s own judgments about himself or interpretations of other people’s judgments, individual ideals or culturally predetermined standards, self-esteem is always subjective, and its indicators can be adequacy and level.
The adequacy of self-assessment expresses the degree of conformity of a person's ideas about himself with the objective foundations of these ideas. So, for example, inadequacy in assessing one's appearance can be caused, on the one hand, by a person's orientation to external standards, assessments and a distorted idea of \u200b\u200bthese assessments or ignorance of them, on the other hand.
The level of self-esteem expresses the degree of real and ideal or desired ideas about oneself. Adequate self-esteem with a tendency to overestimate can be equated with a positive attitude towards oneself, self-respect, self-acceptance, a sense of one's worth. Low self-esteem, on the contrary, can be associated with a negative attitude towards oneself, rejection of oneself, a feeling of one's own inferiority.
Conclusions about the adequacy and level of self-assessment will be reliable if the results are the same for the two versions of the methodology or are confirmed by observation.
In the process of forming self-esteem, an important role is played by the comparison of the image of the real "I" with the image of the ideal "I". Therefore, one who achieves in reality the characteristics corresponding to the ideal will have high self-esteem, even if the ideal image does not differ in volume and cognitive complexity. If a person reflects on the gap between these characteristics and the reality of his achievements, his self-esteem, in all likelihood, will be low.
The second factor, important for the formation of self-esteem, is associated with the internalization of assessments and social reactions of other people, as well as with the position chosen by a person in the system of social and interpersonal relations. Adequate self-esteem contributes to the achievement of internal consistency.
Self-esteem and a person's attitude towards himself are closely related to the level of claims, motivation and emotional characteristics of the individual. The interpretation of the acquired experience and the expectations of a person regarding himself and other people depend on self-esteem.
Internal inconsistency and distortion of self-image can give rise to suffering, guilt, shame, resentment, disgust, anger in a person. To harmonize the system of self-attitude, there are methods of psychological correction and development, one of which is socio-psychological training.
Personal self-assessment, being a component of self-consciousness, includes an assessment of moral qualities, human and physical characteristics, actions, and abilities. Self-assessment of a person is the central formation of the personality, and also demonstrates the social adaptation of the individual, acting as a regulator of his behavior and activities. Self-esteem is associated with self-esteem. Self-respecting individuals have an independent line of behavior, are more balanced and not aggressive. In the usual sense for a person, self-esteem is an assessment of the personality of oneself.
Formation of self-esteem of the individual
Personal self-esteem develops in the process of activity, as well as interpersonal interaction. To a large extent, it depends on the society how a person will evaluate himself. An important role in the formation of self-esteem of the individual is occupied by the assessments of the surrounding people, as well as the personal achievements of the individual.
In psychology, self-assessment is understood as an individual's idea of the significance of his personal activity among other individuals, as well as an assessment of himself and personal qualities, feelings, merits, shortcomings, their expression closed or open.
Personal self-esteem is referred to as stable psychological characteristics of a person. It is very difficult to change it, because it is formed in early childhood and depends not only on innate factors, but also on circumstances in life. A significant influence on it is the attitude of others, since self-esteem is formed as a result of continuous comparison of oneself with other people. To overcome yourself, you should take a sober and bold look inside yourself, study your temperament, character, and other psychological properties necessary in interpersonal interaction.
The study of self-esteem of the individual
The study of personality self-esteem by psychologists revealed that it performs three functions:
- regulatory, solving problems of personal choice,
- protective, providing relative stability, as well as independence of the individual,
- developing, acting as an impetus for the development of the individual.
Psychologists advise every person to look into themselves, because inside there are solutions to many current problems. Having delved into oneself, a person is able to get rid of the garbage located there, as happens during the cleaning of an apartment on New Year's Eve. At the same time, useful, necessary things are located closer, and what is not needed is hidden away.
Self-esteem of the individual forms the self-awareness of a person. Personality, evaluating himself, includes in this process the evaluation of his qualities, properties and capabilities. This happens through introspection, self-observation, self-report, continuous comparison of oneself with other individuals with whom one is in direct contact.
Self-esteem is not just the satisfaction of curiosity. The driving motive is the motive of self-improvement, the desire for success, a healthy sense of pride, because human life is a protracted struggle with oneself.
Self-assessment of a person makes it possible, both to see the real "I", and to link it with one's future and past. Personal self-esteem allows an individual to see the roots of his strengths and weaknesses, to be sure of their objectivity and learn to acquire adequate models for his behavior in everyday situations. A person who has known himself becomes another person.
Personal self-assessment in its structure has two components: cognitive and emotional.
Cognitive reflects everything that a person has learned about himself from various sources of information.
Emotional expresses one's own attitude to different aspects of the personality (behavior, character traits, habits).
Self-esteem and the level of claims of the individual
The American psychologist W. James developed a special formula for self-esteem: Self-esteem \u003d Success / Level of claims
Where the level of claims is the level to which the individual aspires in various spheres of life (status, career, welfare). The level of aspiration serves as an ideal target for your future actions.
Success is the achievement of specific results in the performance of certain actions that reflect the level of claims.
The formula shows that self-esteem can be increased either by reducing the level of claims, or by increasing the effectiveness of one's actions.
Self-esteem of a person can be overestimated, adequate, underestimated. Strong deviations from adequate self-esteem cause a person to experience internal conflicts and psychological discomfort. Often the person himself does not understand the true causes of all these phenomena and begins to look for causes outside himself.
Obviously, the personality is marked by a superiority complex - "I am the most correct", as well as a complex of two-year-old children - "I am the best." A person with high self-esteem idealizes himself, exaggerates his abilities and capabilities, as well as his significance for the people around him. Such a person ignores failures to maintain psychological comfort, while maintaining his usual high conceit.
An individual with overestimated self-esteem presents weaknesses as strengths, giving out ordinary and stubbornness for determination and will. Often such a person turns into an inaccessible person for other individuals, becoming mentally deaf and losing feedback from others. He never listens to other people's opinions. Such a person attributes failure to external factors, other people's intrigues, circumstances, intrigues, but not to his own mistakes. Critical assessment of oneself by other personalities is unacceptable for him, and he treats such people with obvious distrust, classifying all this as envy and nit-picking.
A person with high self-esteem sets inflated and impossible goals for himself; has a level of claims that exceeds its real capabilities. For such a person, such features as arrogance, arrogance, striving for superiority, aggressiveness, rudeness, quarrelsomeness, rigidity are inherent. He behaves emphatically independently, and this is perceived by others as scorn and arrogance.
An individual with high self-esteem is prone to persecution of hysterical and neurotic manifestations, he believes that he deserves more, but he is unlucky. Often he is predictable and stable in his behavior, has a characteristic appearance: high head position, straight posture, long and direct gaze, commanding notes in his voice.
A clearly underestimated self-esteem of the individual is manifested in an anxious, stuck type of character accentuation. As a rule, such a person is not self-confident, indecisive, shy, overly cautious and, like no one else, is in dire need of the approval and support of others.
An individual is easily succumbing to the influence of other personalities and thoughtlessly follows their lead. Often, suffering from an inferiority complex, he tries to fulfill himself, to assert himself at any cost, which leads such a person to indiscriminate means in achieving goals. Such a person is feverishly trying to catch up and prove to himself and everyone his importance and that he personally is worth something. His goals set for himself are lower than he can achieve. A person with low self-esteem often goes into their troubles, as well as failures, while inflating their role in life. Such a person is too demanding of others and of himself, overly self-critical, withdrawn, envious, suspicious, vindictive, cruel. Often such a person becomes a bore, bringing others around with trifles, as well as causing conflicts, both at work and in the family. The appearance is characterized by a retracted head, an indecisive gait, and when talking, averting the eyes to the side.
The adequacy of a person's self-assessment is established by the ratio of two opposite mental processes: cognitive and protective. The cognitive mental process promotes adequacy, and the protective one acts in the direction of the opposite reality.
The protective process is explained by the fact that every person has a sense of self-preservation, which acts in situations of self-esteem on self-justification of personal behavior, as well as self-defense of internal personal psychological comfort. This process also occurs when a person is left alone with himself, since it is difficult for a person to recognize the chaos within himself.
Personal self-esteem levels
To determine the primary school, the "Ladder" method is used. The purpose of this technique is to identify the level of self-esteem of the individual. On a piece of paper, you should draw a ladder of 10 steps, first numbering it. Showing the kid a ladder, it is necessary to explain that the worst girls and boys are on the lowest step. The second is a little better, but already on the top step are the kindest, best and smartest girls and boys. Ask your child which step they would place themselves on. Invite him to draw himself on this step. If it is difficult for a child to draw a little man, offer to draw a 0.
Results processing:
Step 1-3 is a low level (low self-esteem);
Step 4-7 is the average level (adequate self-esteem);
Step 8-10 is a high level (inflated self-esteem).
Interpretation of the results of the methodology
A low level of self-esteem shows that a person is insecure, timid, cannot realize his desires and opportunities. Such children do not achieve what they want, are too critical of themselves and cannot realize their abilities.
The average level shows that the child's personality correctly correlates his abilities and capabilities, is critical of himself, realistically looks at successes and failures, sets himself achievable goals that are feasible in practice.
The average level of self-esteem of the individual shows that the child respects himself, but knows his personal weaknesses, striving for self-development, self-improvement.
A high level shows that the child has a wrong idea of himself, an idealized image of his abilities and personality, his value for others and for the common cause.
In such cases, a person ignores failures in order to maintain the usual high appreciation of himself and his actions. A fair remark is perceived as a nitpick, and an objective assessment is perceived as unfairly underestimated. A person with overestimated inadequate self-esteem does not recognize that all this is due to personal mistakes, lack of knowledge, laziness, improper behavior, abilities.
Too low or high self-esteem violates self-management, impairs self-control. This behavior is noticeable in communications, when people with low and high self-esteem are the cause of conflicts. 
The famous Hollywood actor Chuck Norris was once asked: what will you do if villains with a knife in their hands stop you in the gateway and demand a wallet. “Of course, I’ll give you a wallet,” Chuck replied, “money can be earned, but you can’t buy a second life for any money.” Although it is difficult to imagine such a scene in a movie. Probably, the famous superman really appreciated his capabilities.
Self-esteem can be compared to a mirror. If the mirror is curved, then it distorts the reflection. So self-esteem can be trusted only when it is correct, and not underestimated or overestimated. Overestimated or underestimated self-esteem, like a crooked mirror, is a bad adviser.
- "What am I?"
| 1 2 3 4 5 | MIND | 6 7 8 9 10 |
| 1 2 3 4 5 | KINDNESS | 6 7 8 9 10 |
| 1 2 3 4 5 | BEAUTY | 6 7 8 9 10 |
Note. The qualities given in this exercise are most often called by the guys as the most important. You can replace them with whatever your students name. This exercise, combined with the following, builds realistic self-esteem. In rare cases, it can be traumatic for students with inadequate self-esteem. But for these guys, it's just what you need. If there are such students in the class, think over the strategy of your behavior towards them.
- "The best".
Write down the names of three girls and three boys whom you consider the smartest, kindest and most fair.
The guys can perform this task on separate sheets of paper, which the teacher then collects in order to read the names aloud without indicating the author of the note. Three or four surnames that occur most often are written on the board. Winners can be awarded symbolic prizes, certificates, distinctions. You can ask if self-esteem coincides with the high assessment of the class, what the guys felt when they heard their last names. Guys whose names are not spoken may be disappointed, especially if their self-esteem is inflated. The teacher should not comment on the results of the survey. Summing up, it is important to note that any person can cultivate these qualities in himself: if an athlete who is on the podium stops training, then another will take his place tomorrow.
Comparison of self-assessment and assessment of classmates provides rich information for self-analysis, makes you think about how your own assessment coincides with the assessment of other people.
- "Dreaming is not bad."
Remember what you dreamed about when you went to kindergarten. Write down your dreams on a piece of paper. Think about what you dreamed about in first grade and write down your dreams. Emphasize dreams that have already come true, and cross out what you have stopped dreaming about. How realistic do your childhood dreams seem to you today? Think about what you are dreaming about now. Write it down if you like.
American psychologist William James developed a self-esteem formula, sometimes called the happiness formula:
| SELF-ASSESSMENT = SUCCESS / LEVEL OF CLAIMS |
The main thing in this formula is self-esteem. He depends on her a lot. Self-esteem is high, and requests are reasonable - a person lives easily and calmly, he respects himself and others, is open and friendly, does not touch anyone and is not afraid of anything. His achievements exceed his requests, he knows his own worth, and does not envy anyone.
Remember the toast from the film "Prisoner of the Caucasus"? “I can buy a goat,” says the hero of the film, “but I have no desire. I want to buy a house, but I can't. So let's drink to ensure that our desires correspond to our capabilities!
A loser is not one who has little, but one who suffers because he needs more. The level of claims should correspond to the level of opportunities.
If the achievements are modest, and the requests are exorbitant (I can only buy a scooter, but I want a jeep), a person begins to suffer from the inability to achieve the impossible, to envy one, to humiliate others in order to somehow rise. It seems to him that everyone owes him something - parents, friends. A person with low self-esteem poisons the life of himself and his loved ones. There is only one way to increase self-esteem. Try to find them using the James formula as a hint (succeed in some activity or lower the level of aspiration - only great people can achieve both at the same time).
The psychology of personality is fraught with a terrible riddle - the problem of I.
G. Allport
Where I am? Where I am?
On my own I Wailed!
V. Ivanov
Obviously, self-esteem is somehow connected with the idea of "I", which is always explicitly or implicitly present in philosophical teachings and many psychological concepts. The problem of “I” becomes the subject of direct psychological research only at the end of the 19th century, and immediately begins to be developed in such diverse directions that it is difficult to sort them in any way (Slavskaya, 2002). It makes no sense to cover in detail the entire range of studies devoted to the numerous and varied problems of the "I". Let us reflect only the main directions in the development of this problem, which laid the foundation for the study of self-esteem. An analysis of works related to the study of self-esteem shows that they are somehow based on four key sources: the theoretical positions of W. James, psychoanalysis, theories of symbolic interactionism and humanistic psychology (Burns, 1986; Wells, Marvell, 1976).
W. James approach. William James is known as the first psychologist who began to develop the problem of "I", however, many of his views are quite relevant today. First of all, these are ideas about the dual nature of a single and integral "I" (self), which contains two inseparable components that exist simultaneously: pure experience ("I" - conscious) and the content of this experience ("I" - as an object, empirical " I"). W. James speaks of a "cognitive element" in personality, arguing that the psyche has a "pure ego", which means a thinking subject. Our consciousness is fluid and changeable, and the "pure Ego" is regarded as a kind of unchanging substratum, an agent that causes change in our consciousness, always and everywhere identical to itself - this is the unchanging principle of our spiritual activity (James, 1991). Thus, the cognizing and acting "I" includes the following facets of awareness: awareness of its existence separately from the surrounding world and having a personal inner life; awareness of the continuity, stability of the "I" in time; awareness of one's integrity (connectedness, coherence) and awareness of the effectiveness of the "I", i.e. the fact that the "I" is able to control actions and thoughts.
Under the empirical "I" (or "Mine"), W. James understands the totality, the result of all that a person can call his own. The empirical self is divided into three parts. First contains the constituent elements of personality, which include: the physical I bodily organization, clothing, family, home, property; social self- representations and assessment of others of their own "I", social roles and statuses, that is, what others recognize this person as; at the same time, each person has as many social "I" as there are separate groups, with the opinion of which he takes into account; spiritual self- a set of mental characteristics, inclinations and abilities (thoughts, feelings, desires, sensations). Second part- these are feelings and emotions (or self-esteem) caused by the constituent elements listed above; third- human actions (self-care and self-preservation).
It should be noted that not only the term “self-esteem” appears in the psychological literature for the first time, but also the fact that W. James singles out the three-component structure of the “I”, considering the cognitive, emotional and behavioral components, which corresponds to numerous modern views on the structure of self-consciousness and I- concepts (Burns, 1986; Bolotova, 2007; Borozdina, 1992; Zakharova, 1993; Chesnokova, 1977; etc.). According to W. James self-esteem There are two kinds: self-satisfaction and dissatisfaction with oneself. Self-satisfaction includes such feelings as pride, arrogance, self-respect, arrogance, vanity, and dissatisfaction with oneself - modesty, humiliation, embarrassment, insecurity, shame, humiliation, remorse, consciousness of one's own shame and despair.
W. James recognizes these feelings as direct, primary gifts of our nature, “each of us still has some constant average tone of well-being, completely independent of our objective reasons for being satisfied or dissatisfied” (James, 2000. p. 13). From this he concludes that a person placed in unfavorable conditions of life can remain in imperturbable self-satisfaction, and a person who commands universal respect and whose success in life is assured can be completely distrustful of his own strength. "The barometer of our self-esteem and self-confidence", in his opinion, rises and falls more depending on purely organic reasons than on rational ones, and may not correspond to other people's assessments of our personality (James, 1991). Nevertheless, somewhat contradicting himself, W. James argues that a person's well-being still changes and depends on his success or failure in the development of the most significant, strong side of his "I". Failures in the development of this particular side of character can cause dissatisfaction with oneself, shame, embarrassment, and success - joy and complacency. Failure or success in something else that is not related to this side will not be experienced as failure or genuine success and, accordingly, will not affect self-esteem. Therefore, W. James emphasizes the importance of choice - the choice of one of the many aspects of personality. Thus, according to W. James, self-esteem is determined entirely by what business we dedicate ourselves to, and is determined by the ratio of our actual abilities, which ensure success, to the level of claims, which is embedded in his well-known formula
It is in this sense that W. James says that well-being does not depend on circumstances - it depends on the person himself, on his right choice, on his claims. It is not necessary to understand the W. James formula in a simplified way, believing that any success in any business or any reduction in claims will lead to an increase in self-esteem; no, this formula works only for the most important side of a person's personality, chosen by him. And if he really chose one of the strongest sides of his personality, then he will more often be accompanied by success, and consequently, self-respect, and if not, if the claims exceed the abilities of a person, then vice versa.
In general, speaking about the views of W. James, it is necessary to emphasize three main points: firstly, the recognition of the dual nature of the "I", the allocation of two inseparable sides in it ("I" as a subject and as an object); secondly, the allocation of the tripartite structure of the empirical "I", including cognitive, emotional and behavioral components; thirdly, the understanding of self-esteem as the experience of certain emotions in one's address, which do not depend on the opinions of others or on any other external circumstances, but are the ratio of one's abilities, ensuring success or failure in a particular business, and the claims of the individual .
Psychoanalytic direction. Most researchers of the problem of "I" agree that "it is only thanks to psychoanalysis that the concept of "I" in the sense of an instance of personality acquired the rights of citizenship" (Meili, 1975, p. 261). As is known, Z. Freud identified three levels of personality: It, I And Super-I differing in genesis, content and functioning laws (Freud, 1991). The “I” system for Z. Freud is a functional and structural component of the psyche, the focus of cognitive and executive functions, will and actual goals, proceeding from the reality principle, obeying physical laws, logic, social norms, containing both a conscious and an unconscious component and regulating adaptation process. "I" is the force that, taking into account the requirements of society, social norms, prohibitions and ideals adopted by the individual, opposes the pressure of unconscious drives, and also seeks to link drives It with the demands of reality. To this end, the "I" regulates and balances conflicting impulses with the help of psychological "defense" mechanisms, suppressing, limiting or transforming drives in a special way. It and thereby providing a discharge of sexual energy. The problem of psychological defense, first posed by Z. Freud, and the purposeful study of the protective mechanisms of the personality as ways of coping Ego with traumatic experiences, carried out by A. Freud, are reflected in modern ideas about the mechanisms of defense of the "I", in particular in studies of ways to maintain and protect self-esteem. Z. Freud did not investigate self-reflexive actions and actions of the I-image, however, apparently, the authority I was endowed with such a function (Wells, Marvell, 1976).
Super-I- this is the instance of the individual, which is conscience, the ego-ideal, criticism and censor, which controls the observance of the norms adopted in this society, and therefore constantly conflicts with It. Super-I is formed in the preschool years as a result of the introjection of the regulatory and regulatory influences of parents, when children begin to learn moral norms, social standards of human behavior, values and attitudes. Super-I- this is an idealized image of the father (mother), which, in the process of resolving the Oedipus complex (Electra complex), became part of the child's psyche. “The superego of a child is not really based on the images of the parents, but on their superego. Its content is the same, it serves to preserve traditions and a stable system of values that are passed down from generation to generation” (Freud, 1933. Quoted from: Frager, Feidiman, 2002, p. 46).
Z. Freud described several functions Super-I: moral conscience, self-observation, censorship, formation of ideals. Super-I on the one hand, it helps I in the mastery of unconscious desires It, and on the other hand, it has I pressure, punishing in case of conflict with his ideals. Super-I manifests itself in the form of guilt, inferiority or pride, impulses of ambition, the desire to catch up with the powerful father who so attracted and frightened the child in childhood. And although Z. Freud did not consider self-evaluative actions, he dealt with strong emotions directed at himself - self-condemnation, self-hatred, etc., which arise as a result of correlating one's own behavior, thoughts, feelings, drives with the requirements Super-I.“If anything in the Self coincides with the Ideal Self, there will always be a sense of triumph. The feeling of guilt (and the feeling of inferiority) can also be understood as an expression of the tension between the Self and the Ideal” (Freud, 1991, p. 126). At the same time, Z. Freud pointed out that “when a person cannot be satisfied with his “I”, he still finds satisfaction in the “Ideal I”, which was differentiated from the “I” (Freud, 1991, p. 107). Thus, the authority Super-I one way or another, it includes the ability for critical self-assessment - correlation of one's own thoughts and behavior with parental prescriptions or an acquired system of values, causing a feeling of guilt or, conversely, a sense of self-respect and pride. From this we can conclude, simplifying in a certain way, that for Z. Freud the process of self-evaluation is not the result of a history of success and failure, like W. James, but the result of identification with the ego-ideal.
The theory of the psychosexual development of the child presented in psychoanalysis, which focuses on the early experience of his relationship with his parents and determines the subsequent features of object relations and the experience of his own "I", also influenced the development of ideas about the formation of self-esteem.
The psychoanalytic theories of A. Adler and K. Horney are more connected with the concepts of self-concept and self-esteem. A. Adler unlike Z. Freud, he considered not “pansexualism” as the defining determinant of human behavior, but a special creative force of life, which is expressed in the desire for excellence, development, and improvement. He developed the idea of a feeling of inferiority as a fundamental and universal feeling, which is based, first of all, on the perception of one's physical insufficiency, defectiveness. “Throughout the entire period of development, the child experiences the feeling that he is inferior in something both to his parents and to the whole world as a whole. Due to the immaturity of his organs, his indeterminacy and lack of independence, due to his need to rely on stronger natures and due to the often painful feeling of subordination to other people, a feeling of failure develops in the child, which then betrays itself throughout life ”(Adler, 1924. Cit. . according to: Sidorenko, 2002, p. 23). This feeling of one's own insufficiency, according to A. Adler, is a normal human feeling, characteristic of everyone: “To be human means to feel one's insufficiency” (Adler, 1932. Quoted from: Sidorenko, 2002, p. 24). The feeling of insufficiency is caused by the desire to overcome it, called by A. Adler in different ways, for example, “male protest” or “will to power”, but in the end the term “striving for superiority” was established, for improvement, the direction of which depends on the development social interest or public feeling. A. Adler pointed out that each person has a creative energy that is actually identical to his “I”, its essence is the constant striving to achieve the goal: “We are not able to think, feel, desire, act without having a goal in front of us” (Adler, 1995, p. 22). It is this goal that forms the "line of life", "plan of life", "life style", which a person consciously or unconsciously follows (Adler, 1995). To understand a person, from the point of view of A. Adler, means to identify, intuitively feel the main line of his life and the goal behind it.
According to Adler (Adler, 1995, p. 119), the guiding lines of life are
in real activity:
a) development of abilities aimed at achieving excellence;
b) comparing yourself with your environment;
c) accumulation of knowledge and skills;
d) a feeling of hostility from the outside world;
e) the use of love and obedience, hatred and stubbornness, a sense of community and the desire for power to achieve superiority;
in imagination:
f) the formation of "as if" (fantasies, symbolic successes);
g) exploiting weakness;
h) postponing decisions, looking for "shelter".
Any neurosis, from the point of view of A. Adler, can be understood as "an erroneous attempt from the standpoint of culture to get rid of the feeling of inferiority in order to gain a sense of superiority" (Adler, 1995, p. 48). Superiority over other people, which exists only in the imagination of a neurotic (superiority complex), can only obscure, but not eliminate the inferiority complex. The striving for superiority of a neurotic does not give an objectively positive result, since it involves in one form or another violence against others, humiliation of their self-esteem; leads to self-aggrandizement, to an inadequate idea of oneself and others, which ultimately does not eliminate, but, on the contrary, contributes to the growth of a sense of inferiority, turning it into a complex. Most often, an erroneous lifestyle is formed as a result of a “pathogenic childhood situation”, in children with real imperfections of certain organs, in spoiled or neglected children, that is, in children whose “social interest” is weakened. A normal person, according to A. Adler, does not have a superiority complex, he, “while striving for superiority, moderates his ardor with public interests, his actions are beneficial and his activity is constructive” (Adler, 1997, p. 61).
From the point of view of A. Adler, lifestyle is “the meaning that a person attaches to the world and to himself, his goals, the direction of his aspirations and the approaches that he uses in solving life problems” (Adler, 1932. Cited by: Sidorenko , 2002, p. 50). The "supreme law of life" is that "the sense of worth of the human person must not diminish" (Adler, 1956, cited in Frager and Feidiman, 2002, p. 125). In the neurotic, this desire takes on an acute form: he behaves as if he constantly needs to prove his superiority, while striving to exclude any relationship if he begins to feel that they interfere with his sense of power or expose his sense of inferiority.
Thus, A. Adler points out, firstly, the importance of a subjective assessment of reality, and secondly, includes a person’s idea of himself and his assessment of his abilities and capabilities in the definition of lifestyle. In his concept, there is an implicit idea of self-esteem as a sense of self-worth arising from the correlation of the real "I" with the proper or ideal, or, in other words, as an awareness of progress towards the realization of life goals.
One of the main assumptions C. Horney is that a person has a real "I", the implementation of which requires favorable conditions. The real "I" is a central, internal, creative force, a source of growth, the ability to use one's own resources (feelings, thoughts, desires, hopes, hobbies, willpower, talent), i.e. some potential human capabilities that are realized through interaction with the outside world and ensuring development towards self-realization (Horney, 1997). Alienation from the real "I" as a result of the overwhelming influence of the environment is the main feature of neurosis, from the point of view of K. Horney. When pathogenic conditions arise (lack of a “warmth atmosphere”, goodwill, inability to perceive the child as an independent person, etc.), children develop basal anxiety - a feeling of helplessness, insecurity in a potentially hostile world. Basal anxiety, in turn, leads to the development of protective strategies that mitigate its manifestation:
moving towards people- a strategy of compliance, dependence, belittling oneself, expressed in an attempt to earn the love and approval of other people;
movement against the people- a strategy of aggression, expansion, expressed in the desire for dominance, achievements, success, prestige and recognition. There are three types of solutions within an expansion strategy. Persons who have chosen narcissistic decision, you need to confirm your high self-esteem and arouse admiration and devotion from others. People who have chosen perfectionist decision, are distinguished by high moral and intellectual standards, strive to achieve impeccability in everything and, on this basis, rise above other people. Those who choose arrogantly vengeful decisions, distinguished by cruelty and perseverance, for them life is a battlefield;
movement from people- a strategy of solitude, withdrawal, distance from everyone. People with this dominant strategy seek neither love nor domination, they prefer freedom, peace and self-sufficiency (Horney, 1997).
In addition to interpersonal defense strategies, K. Horney postulated the presence of intrapsychic defense strategies. Under certain conditions, a person can come to identify himself with his ideal integrated image, then "the ideal image of himself becomes ideal self, ideal Self"(Horney, 2000, p. 426). In this case, "the energy that feeds the movement towards self-realization turns to another goal - the actualization of the ideal Self", which means, according to K. Horney, "a change in the course of all life and human development" (Horney, 2000, p. 427). The idealized self, created by imagination, is an inadequate self-image, endowed with limitless power and extraordinary abilities (Horney, 1997). At the same time, an idealized image does not necessarily increase the significance of a person in his own eyes, rather, it enhances his self-hatred and toughens intrapersonal conflict. A person begins to feel his own value only when he corresponds to his idealized "I". Anything that cannot match this imaginary image causes a feeling of low value and contempt and leads to the formation of a despised image. Many people, K. Horney writes, oscillate between “a sense of arrogant omnipotence and their own absolute insignificance” (Horney, 1955. Quoted from: Frager, Feidiman, 2002. P. 203).
Self-idealization inevitably develops into an all-encompassing attraction - the desire to express the ideal self, to actualize the ideal Self, which K. Horney calls pursuit of glory. Creating an idealized image, the pursuit of fame develops pride system: neurotic pride, neurotic claims, tyrannical shoulds, self-hatred (Horney, 1955, cited in Frager and Feidiman, 2002, p. 203). The emphasis shifts from "to be" to "to seem" (Horney 2000, p. 440). The person replaces realistic confidence and self-esteem with pride in the features of his idealized image, on the basis of which he builds neurotic claims, demanding that he be treated in accordance with his magnificent idea of \u200b\u200bthe self, as well as tyrannical shoulds that prompt a person to live according to his exaggerated image of "I" . If the idealized "I" feels that the real "I" is not what it should be, then there is anger towards the latter, a feeling of self-hatred develops.
Thus, the main internal conflict of the personality is the conflict between the real "I" and the pride system. A way out of a neurotic conflict, according to K. Horney, is possible through a person's awareness of his real "I", through the development of real possibilities, i.e. through building his life in accordance with real Self.
The psychoanalytic tradition contributes to the emergence of a tendency to consider the action of intrapersonal forces, to differentiate the "I", highlighting along with the real "I" and other instances, to focus on the unconscious components of the "I" system and their action, to analyze various options for self-relationship, and life in general in depending on the situation of childhood, the solution of intrapersonal conflicts, put forward goals and life plans.
Another example of the theoretical foundation of modern research on self-esteem within this area is the concept of psychosocial development. E. Erickson.
The approach of E. Erickson, which is essentially a development of the concept of Z. Freud, is addressed to the socio-cultural context of the formation of identity. Identity E. Erickson understands it as a process of organizing life experience into an individual "I" (Erickson, 1996), which continues throughout a person's life and actually means inner confidence in the direction of one's life path. E. Erickson defines identity as a complex personal formation, including the idea of one's time span, the desire for continuity of life experience, a sense of one's own uniqueness, identity to oneself, the integrity and stability of one's own "I", as well as the internal solidarity of a person with social, group ideals and standards. According to E. Erickson, identity in the most general sense coincides in many respects with what various authors call "I-concept", "I-system" or "I-experience" (Erickson, 1996). However, he considers these concepts to be static, while, in his opinion, the main feature of identity is dynamism, because identity never reaches completion, is not something immutable, which can then be used as a ready tool of personality (Burns, 1986) . The identity of the individual arises in the process of integrating the images of the "I", which is always more than the simple sum of his individual ideas about himself. The identity structure has a "I-aspect" and an "ego-aspect". According to E. Erickson, one can speak of ego-identity when the synthesizing function of the ego is discussed, and "I-identity" when the images of the "I" and the role images of the individual's identifications are discussed (Erickson, 1996).
'Ego-identity' is characterized by a truly attainable but always revisited sense of the reality of the 'I' in social reality” (Erickson, 2000b, p. 495). The sudden realization of the inadequacy of the existing self-identity, the resulting confusion and the subsequent exploration aimed at finding a new identity, new conditions of personal existence, are the characteristic features of the dynamic process of development of "ego-identity" (Burns, 1986).
E. Erickson recognized that identity is a dynamic structure that develops throughout a person's life. He describes eight stages of identity development, each of which has its own central problem, the resolution of which occurs in the so-called identity crises - periods of choosing the path of development, resolving the conflict between the existing configuration of identity elements and the changed biological or social conditions of development: new elements of identity must be integrated into the existing structure, while the old and obsolete ones are reintegrated or discarded (Erickson, 2000a). Overcoming identity crises appears as a series of ongoing choices, as a result of which a person accepts his goals, values, activities, which requires certain efforts and can be carried out both in a progressive and regressive direction. According to E. Erickson, the process of formation and development of identity "preserves the integrity and individuality of a person's experience, gives him the opportunity to anticipate both internal and external dangers and measure his abilities with the social opportunities provided by society" (Erickson, 1996, p. 8).
Undoubtedly, E. Erickson's concept of identity is an important addition to the psychoanalytic understanding of the problem of "I", focusing on the conscious aspects of the "I", their social conditioning and dynamic variability.
interactionist approach. The focus of researchers in this area is the analysis of the social determinants of human behavior, the analysis of the interaction of a person with his social environment, during which the formation of role behavior and the formation of "I" take place. C. Cooley(Cooly, 1922) was the first to emphasize that the main guideline in the formation of the "I" of the individual is the other person, or, more precisely, the subjectively interpreted feedback he receives from other people. Thus, C. Cooley limits his research to that aspect of the "I", which W. James designated as the social "I" (Cooly, 1922). C. Cooley's conviction in the inseparability, integrity of the individual with society is reflected in his well-known theory "mirror self" according to which the individual concept of oneself, the "I-idea" is determined by the perception of the opinions and reactions of the surrounding people. The “I-Idea” has three main components: a person's idea of how others perceive him; an idea of how these Others evaluate the image they perceive and react to it and some of their own feelings and emotions in response to the assessments and reactions of Others. A person's attitude towards himself is determined by how others perceive and evaluate him. The “I-Idea”, according to Ch. Cooley, is formed already in early childhood, and the appropriation of the opinions of significant Others about himself, primarily coming from his family and peers, is of decisive importance here.
The idea of social interaction as an important source of the formation of the image of "I" was further developed D. Mead(Mead, 1934). He distinguished between "I" - the subject of mental activity, the reaction of the individual to the influence of others, and "me" - the attitudes of Others mastered by a person towards himself. D. Mead believed that only in the course of the practical interaction of an individual with other people does a person become an object for himself, that is, self-knowledge and self-consciousness are formed. Self-knowledge is carried out not directly, but indirectly through the assimilation of the attitudes towards oneself of individual members of the group or through the generalized attitude of the entire social group (“generalized Other”). Having assimilated and accepted the attitude of others towards himself, the individual becomes an independent object and begins to evaluate and act in relation to himself in the same way as those around him evaluate and act in relation to him. Recall that W. James believed that a person has as many social "Selves" as there are people with whom he interacts, however, without the concept of "generalized Other" this statement would lead to the presence of a fragmented set of situational "Selves". The concept of "generalized Other" is an important addition to the idea of "I" as a social process, since it is the source of a "generalized I", not reducible to private "I", reflecting individual social relations. This idea of D. Mead is related to the idea of general (global) self-esteem that appeared later.
D. Mead considers children's games, games by the rules with one or more partners, which are a reproduction of relations between others, to be the source of the formation of self-awareness. At the same time, symbolic communication, both verbal and non-verbal, is of great importance (Burns, 1986). Taking on the role of the Other can be described, from the point of view of D. Mead, as the acceptance of the Other's attitudes in relation to one's own activity. By playing, that is, by taking on the role of the Other in play, the child learns to be an object in his own eyes. Orientation in the game not only to the expectations of one partner, but also to the general rules, leads to the formation of the image of a “generalized Other”. It is in the game that the gradual internalization of social norms, requirements, prohibitions, behavior patterns takes place, which are transformed into individual values and included in the self-concept. Thus, in the concept of D. Mead, "I" is conditioned not just by the opinions of Others, but by real relationships with them and appears as a derivative of the group "We".
Although D. Mead did not directly study self-esteem, personality, understood as a set of reflected attitudes towards oneself in a particular social situation (a set of reflective attitudes), allows us to consider self-esteem as an evaluative component of each of these attitudes or as the sum of all these assessments.
humanist direction. Existential themes, problems of self-actualization, self-concept, self-realization, etc. are central in humanistic psychology (G. Allport, A. Maslow, K. Rogers, and others). Key elements of the humanistic approach: the individual is a single, unique, organized whole; the inner nature of a person is positive, that is, it contains potential opportunities for positive growth and improvement; the creative potential of a person is an integral property of his nature; a person is free to choose and develop his own style of life, to choose and determine his own destiny; self-actualization, the desire for growth is the main theme of human life, which can be identified only by studying mentally healthy and mature people.
The need for self-esteem is A. Maslow to the fundamental human needs necessary to maintain health and psychological adaptation. This need is considered as an important step on the way to self-actualization, to the actualization of inherent potentials, to self-embodiment: must be who he is Maybe to be” (Maslow, 1999, p. 90). The need for self-esteem, according to A. Maslow, includes desires and aspirations associated with the concept of "achievement". Satisfaction of the need for evaluation, respect generates a sense of self-confidence, a sense of self-worth, competence, strength, adequacy, usefulness, necessity. An unsatisfied need for respect and self-respect causes a person to feel humiliation, weakness, helplessness, which, in turn, trigger the development of neurotic reactions (Maslow, 1999). A. Maslow emphasizes that self-esteem will only be stable and healthy when it is based on the real abilities, knowledge and skills of a person, when it “grows out of well-deserved respect, and not from the flattery of others, not from the fact of fame or glory ”(Maslow, 1999. P. 89). Self-acceptance is one of the most important characteristics of self-actualized people, which means the absence of self-sufficing feelings of guilt and shame; acceptance of one's essence with all its inherent flaws and shortcomings (Maslow, 1999).
One of the main approaches of the humanistic direction, which influenced the theories of self-esteem, was the phenomenological approach. K. Rogers. From the point of view of K. Rogers (1994), the main motive of human behavior is the desire for self-actualization, i.e. the actualization of one's "I", one's capabilities and abilities, leading to the development of self-sufficiency, independence, social responsibility, maturity and competence.
K. Rogers believes that the self-concept, constituting the core of the subjective world of human experiences, is the central construct for the theory of psychotherapy and personality. He defines the "I" as "... a structured, consistent gestalt, consisting of representations of the properties of the "I" as a subject ("I") and "I" as an object ("those"), as well as from the perception of the relationship "I" or "me" to other people and different aspects of life. Gestalt also includes assessments associated with these representations” (Rogers, 1959. Quoted from: Isenina, 1994, p. 11). Thus, K. Rogers considered the self-concept, or the perceived "I", as an attitude aimed at one's "I" ("self-regardiry attitudes"), which has three main aspects: cognitive - the specific content of the attitude; evaluative - a judgment about this content in relation to certain standards, and affective - some feeling attached to this judgment. Self-respect, self-approval, self-acceptance belong to this last dimension.
Another important idea in the concept of K. Rogers was the idea of structuredness, organization, integration of the "I". The concepts of "I-concept" and "I-structure" he used as synonyms. Self-structure is an organized integration of self-perceptions that is accessible to awareness. Thus, the important properties of the self-concept are the properties of organization, consciousness and constancy. Although the "I" changes during a person's life, nevertheless it retains its basic structure, which allows you to feel your own identity. Self-structure is formed through interaction with the environment, primarily with significant others, gradually differentiating and becoming more complex.
Along with the self-concept, the need for love or positive attitude from others also develops. The need for a positive self-attitude or self-respect is formed on the basis of the assimilation of a positive attitude towards oneself from others. Since a positive attitude towards oneself depends on the assessments of others, there may be a gap between the individual's real experience, his direct experiences and his need for a positive attitude towards himself. This discrepancy between self-concept and direct experiences arises as a result of attempts to protect the existing self-concept, which is largely due to the learned ideas and values of significant other people, from the threat of encountering experiences that are inconsistent with it. K. Rogers names two mechanisms for protecting the existing self-concept, which allow preserving the false image of the "I": distortion of perception and one's own experiences and avoidance of awareness of that part of one's experience that threatens the self-concept.
“I” contains not only “I am real”, what a person is now, but also “I am ideal”, that is, what he would like to be, a large gap between which is interpreted by K. Rogers as an obstacle to healthy functioning and personal development .
Thus, in the theory of K. Rogers, the cause of personality disorders, maladjustment is the conflict between the self-concept and the direct "organismic" experience of the individual and between the self-concept and one's own ideal. A healthy, mature person can reflect subjective experience in his self-concept without distortion, he is open to experience, even if this experience is negative, he is characterized by the congruence of "I" and experience. Protective mechanisms, allowing you to save the false "I", become the main barrier to the formation of a mature personality.
K. Rogers (1994) uses client-centered therapy as a method aimed at modifying the state of the self-concept in order to eliminate the dissonance between it and the individual's direct experiences, between it and an unrealistic own ideal. He believes that, thanks to the psychotherapeutic influence, a person begins to fully realize his real "I", i.e., his I-concept becomes more open to external and internal experience, correct, representing his entire experience; the real "I" is evaluated more positively; the perception of the ideal "I", in turn, becomes more realistic, and thus, the real "I" begins to correspond more to the ideal.
According to K. Rogers, a positive self-attitude exists when the I-structure is well organized, that is, sufficiently stable, and at the same time has flexibility, when there is no big gap between the real and the ideal "I", when "the self-image has a large inner peace, self-understanding and self-acceptance, greater responsibility for one’s actions” (Rogers, 1994, p. 316).
It can be said that in various areas of humanistic psychology, the assertion of the uniqueness of the existence of an individual, his integrity, autonomy, freedom to choose and build his own life, the presence of potential and the desire for self-actualization and personal growth is associated with the recognition of the importance of the "I-concept", self-respect, acceptance of one's own essence, the ability to creatively approach one's own "I".
In domestic psychology The starting points for the study of self-esteem are, in our opinion, the ideas about self-consciousness, reflected in the works of L.S. Vygotsky and S.L. Rubinshtein, as well as the presentation and interpretation of B.V. Zeigarnik of K. Levin's views on the nature of the level of claims.
L.S. Vygotsky considers the formation of a personality and the formation of self-consciousness as internally interconnected processes: “The same thing that is usually called a personality is nothing more than a person’s self-consciousness that arises precisely at this time [L.S. Vygotsky means adolescence]: a person’s new behavior becomes behavior for himself, the person himself is aware of himself as a certain unity” (Vygotsky, 1984, p. 227). Revealing the dynamics and structure of the personality of a teenager, L.S. Vygotsky emphasizes three main points important for understanding self-awareness.
First, L.S. Vygotsky analyzes self-consciousness as a continuous process that goes through a long path of development. This is the path of psychological and social changes, the restructuring of the entire mental life, which lead to the emergence of self-consciousness. The formation of self-consciousness, according to L.S. Vygotsky, “is nothing but a certain historical stage in the development of a personality, inevitably emerging from previous stages” (Vygotsky, 1984, p. 231). At the same time, L.S. Vygotsky (1984), referring to the studies of A. Busemann, identifies six main directions in the development of self-consciousness, from which its structure is formed: 1) the emergence and development of one's own image from ignorance of oneself to in-depth knowledge;
2) the development of self-consciousness goes from outside to inside, from awareness of one's own body to awareness of one's own inner world;
3) integration, i.e. awareness of oneself as a single whole, awareness of each individual manifestation as part of the whole; 4) the delimitation of one's own personality from the surrounding world, that is, the consciousness of the difference and originality of one's own personality; 5) the transition from assessments of one's physicality ("strong-weak", "healthy-sick") to assessments of one's skills and further - to judgments about oneself according to spiritual scales, i.e. internal, moral criteria; 6) the growth of differences in interindividual variations, the formation of various types of personality structure and self-awareness.
Secondly, L.S. Vygotsky especially emphasizes the connection between the development of self-consciousness and the environment, with social development. The development of self-consciousness is the result of the socio-cultural development of the individual, therefore, differences in the "cultural content of the environment" determine the different structure and dynamics of self-consciousness.
Thirdly, L.S. Vygotsky notes the possibility of an empirical analysis of self-consciousness. It is this analysis that makes it possible, in particular, to see a new stage in the development of a teenager, his personality and self-consciousness. “Along with the primary conditions of the individual make-up of the personality (inclinations, heredity) and the secondary conditions of its formation (environment, acquired characteristics), there are tertiary terms(reflection and self-shaping)” (Vygotsky, 1984, p. 237). According to L.S. Vygotsky, these tertiary functions, the functions of self-consciousness, are nothing but psychological relations transferred to the personality, which were once relations between people. “Self-consciousness is social consciousness transferred inside” (Vygotsky, 1984, p. 239). Thus, in adolescence, a new factor of development appears - the personality of the adolescent himself. Reflection or the emergence of self-consciousness, according to L.S. Vygotsky, leads to mastering the internal regulation of the processes of memory, attention, thinking, i.e. to internal changes in consciousness and, consequently, the personality itself, to the ability to “determine the way of life and behavior, change our actions, direct them and free them from under the power of a particular situation” (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 252), as well as to a deeper understanding of other people.
As rightly noted by V.P. Zinchenko, “Vygotsky’s position that the source of higher mental functions is consciousness, as far as I know, no one remembered and still does not remember” (Zinchenko, 2000, p. 156). Indeed, we have to state that the “tertiary conditions” of individuality, about which L.S. Vygotsky, which actually lead to awareness and mastery of various functions, i.e., to the formation of higher mental functions, as well as to a different understanding of others and, let us note, of oneself, were “not noticed” by Russian psychologists for a long time.
S.L. Rubinstein also emphasizes the importance of studying self-consciousness in a holistic study of personality, “without consciousness and self-consciousness there is no personality,” he wrote (Rubinshtein, 1989, p. 238), while emphasizing that personality is irreducible to its consciousness and self-consciousness, but it is also impossible without them. He believes that the problem of the psychological study of the personality should end with the disclosure of its self-consciousness: “the last final question that confronts us in terms of the psychological study of the personality is the question of its consciousness, about the personality as “I”, which, as a subject, appropriates everything that a person does, refers to itself all the deeds and actions emanating from him, and consciously takes responsibility for them as their author and creator” (Rubinshtein, 1989. C 238).
According to S.L. Rubinshtein, self-consciousness acts as a complex integrative formation of a personality that is not given to a person from birth, its development is included in the process of personality development, arises in the course of the development of personality consciousness: “self-consciousness therefore does not have an independent path of development, separate from personality development, reflected in it, but is included in this process of personality development as a real subject, as its moment, side, component” (Rubinshtein, 1989, p. 238). Self-consciousness is the awareness of oneself as a conscious subject, a real individual, the source of development of which is the growing independence of a person.
S.L. Rubinstein outlines the ways of development of self-consciousness in ontogenesis, associated with the mastery of one's own body, the emergence of voluntary movements, independent movement and self-service, with the mastery of speech, leading to the fact that the child distinguishes himself from the environment, realizes his independence in relation to other people, separates himself from them. At the same time, the child realizes his independence and isolation from the environment only through his relations with the people around him, that is, he comes to realize himself, to the knowledge of his own "I" through the knowledge of other people. “There is no “I” outside the relationship “You”, and there is no self-consciousness outside the awareness of another person as an independent subject” (Rubinshtein, 1989, p. 240).
The change in the relationship of the child with others is reflected in his mind and thereby changes his internal mental state, rebuilds his internal attitude towards other people and towards himself. However, according to S.L. Rubinshtein (1997), the process of personality development and its self-awareness is not exhausted, further development is associated with more complex, inner work, including the ability to independently, consciously set certain tasks, goals, and determine the direction of one's activity. Only in adolescence does the process of inner work, in-depth self-knowledge unfold, caused by the need to determine one's life plans and priorities and associated with the development of critical thinking, goal-setting activities, and the formation of a worldview.
The process of self-knowledge begins to connect with an increasingly defined self-esteem. S.L. Rubinshtein notes a number of features of self-esteem of this period: its instability, generalization, focus mainly on the internal mental content, "spiritual, ideological scales of self-esteem" (Rubinshtein, 1989, p. 241). Further development of self-consciousness, included in the process of personality development, is associated with the process of rethinking life, passing through the entire life path of a person, determining the motives for his actions and the inner meaning of the tasks that he solves in life. “Following S.L. Rubinstein, it must be emphasized, - writes K.A. Abulkhanova (2001. p. 230), - the importance of self-identity in functioning personality, in its interaction with the world, the integration of relations gives it the opportunity to own them, that is, to preserve them as their own relations and manifest themselves in them.
Consciousness, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, it is the unity of knowledge and experience, so that even when one realizes oneself, experience acts as its internal component. Experiences associated with the awareness of one's own psychological characteristics are mediated by the real existence of the individual and arise as a result of her specific life activity. A person refers to his “I” only that which determines his behavior, giving it originality, determines his life and activity; what was meaningful to him and experienced, i.e., entered into the history of his inner life. If in relation to consciousness, when orienting to the world of objects and phenomena, experience, from the point of view of S.L. Rubinstein, acts as his personal motivational plan, then the experience as a component of self-consciousness acts “as an even more internal phenomenon of the psyche, since it expresses one’s own attitude to this personal motivational plan of consciousness, i.e. it is mediated by the real context of the personality’s life through personal motivational plan of consciousness” (Chesnokova, 1977, p. 113).
However, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, a person's self-consciousness is not given directly in experiences, but is the result of cognition, which requires awareness of the real conditionality of one's experiences. Thus, experience always acts in unity and interconnection with the other side of consciousness - knowledge.
The development of self-consciousness, according to S.L. Rubinstein, it is possible only through interaction with the outside world, as a result of relationships with other people, through various connections of his "I" with other specific "I", through awareness of changes in relations with others, through the knowledge of other people. As a result of these relationships, a person consciously defines himself as "I", as a person, which is expressed in his self-consciousness.
It is in the experience that one or another attitude of the individual to himself is expressed, which, however, S.L. Rubinstein distinguishes from self-esteem. Self-esteem is conditioned by a worldview that defines the criteria, standards, standards of evaluation, i.e., a person’s self-esteem is determined by the contribution of the individual to the public cause, by “what he, as a public individual, does for society” (Rubinshtein, 1989, p. 244).
Thus, S.L. Rubinstein included in the range of problems of psychological research the questions of the correlation of personality, consciousness and self-consciousness, the ontogenetic dynamics of self-consciousness, the structure and procedural nature of self-consciousness, the specifics of self-esteem in comparison with the attitude of the individual to himself; questions related to the mediated nature of self-consciousness, with the determining role of activity and real relationships with others in its formation, with the regulatory function of self-consciousness in the behavior and development of the individual.
Self-esteem in domestic psychology is closely associated with such a construct as level of claims. This line of self-esteem analysis originates in school K. Levin, which was presented in domestic science mainly in the works B.V. Zeigarnik, students of K. Levin (Zeigarnik, 1981). The first significant study of the level of claims - a meaningful disclosure of the concept and the development of a technique for evaluating it - belongs to F. Hoppe, who interpreted the level of claims as the goal of subsequent action.
Claim level determines the desire to achieve goals of the degree of complexity that a person considers himself capable of. The level of claims is interpreted as the level of difficulty of the goals chosen by the subject and is formed under the influence of success or failure in the activity. However, the decisive factor in the formation of the level of claims is not objective success or failure, but the subject's experience of his achievements as successful or unsuccessful. Achievements are judged as success or failure only if they are attributed to the self.
F. Hoppe observed a stable phenomenon: an increase in the level of claims after success and a decrease after failure. The real goal, according to F. Hoppe, often belongs to a certain “hierarchy of goals”, i.e. the way a person acts is determined not only by a momentary private goal, along with it there is a wider goal - an ideal goal. It is the presence of an ideal goal that can explain the increase in the level of claims after success. Ideal goals are large, all-encompassing personal goals related to the self-awareness of the individual; they are related to the person's time perspective. F. Hoppe believed that the concept of “I level” is behind the level of claims. From the point of view of B.V. Zeigarnik (1981), this concept is similar to the later appeared term "self-esteem". Level I has the original ability to maintain as high a height as possible, which is expressed in two conflicting tendencies: in the desire to avoid failure, which leads to a decrease in the level of claims, and in the desire to succeed in solving the most difficult tasks, i.e., with the highest possible claims (Zeigarnik, 1981 ). Changes in the level of aspirations are connected precisely with the conflict between these tendencies: the desire to get closer to the ideal goal and the fear of failure - and not just with the fixation of success or failure.
In the works of K. Levin and his students, it was emphasized that precisely because the goal of a single action correlates with a more general “level of the Self” (or self-esteem), the experience of success and failure is possible only within the subject’s zone of possibilities, i.e., a person subjectively answers only for what is related to the "level of I" (Zeigarnik, 1981). Self-esteem is the basis of the level of claims, while the height of self-esteem and the level of claims are in a linear relationship. This provision led to numerous works by domestic authors, which revealed the relationship between the level of claims and self-esteem (Lipkina, 1976; Neimark, 1961; Savonko, 1969, etc.). As noted by L.V. Borozdina (2000), the idea of a close relationship between these constructs turns out to be so stable that the terms "self-esteem" and "level of claims" are sometimes used synonymously, and the test for claims is often considered as a direct self-assessment indicator, according to the parameters of which a person's assessment of his potential is reconstructed, a classification of the types of self-assessment is carried out. Research carried out in the last two decades, mainly by L.V. Borozdina and her students (Borozdina, 2000; Borozdina, Vidinska, 1986; Borozdina, Zaluchenova, 1993; Borozdina, Kubantseva, 2008; Bylkina, 1995; Zin'ko, 2006; Pukinska, 2008; Sidorov, 2007) suggest that understanding self-esteem as the basis for the choice of claims does not at all mean a statement about the one-to-one correspondence of the parameters of these constructs, the level of claims is not always able to accurately represent self-esteem, and, therefore, its interpretation as a direct indicator of self-esteem is not correct (Borozdina, 2000). It is recognized that the relationship between self-esteem and the level of claims is complex and not fully understood (Borozdina, 2000).
Summing up a brief overview of the theoretical approaches related to the problem of "I", we emphasize the following provisions that have had a significant impact on the development of modern ideas about self-esteem:
In a single integral "I" (self) there are two inseparable components: pure experience ("I" as a subject of knowledge) and the content of this experience ("I" as an object of knowledge);
“I” is the central, internal, creative, creative force, the source of activity, growth, development;
The "I" system contains both conscious and unconscious components;
I-concept, or self-consciousness, has a certain structure, including ideas about oneself, their affective assessment and behavioral reactions;
Self-consciousness is an integrative formation of a personality, which is not given to a person from birth and has its own development path in ontogenesis; it is a certain historical stage in the development of personality, inevitably emerging from previous stages;
Self-consciousness is a dynamic formation of the psyche, which is in constant motion both in ontogenesis and in everyday functioning;
The procedural nature of self-consciousness, the “I” system is manifested in the dynamics of the ratios of its internal components, in the process of self-regulation of behavior, in the psychotherapeutic process;
Self-consciousness acts as a regulator of various functions, ensuring the formation of new connections, relationships, structural links between them, as a regulator of behavior and activity;
Self-consciousness ("I") is formed in the specific life of the individual, in social interaction, being the result of the socio-cultural development of the individual;
Self-consciousness, which initially arises as an external form of behavior, as a relationship between people, then becomes the internal forms of thinking and action of the individual - this is social consciousness transferred inward;
Self-esteem depends on other people's relationships and on one's own success/failure in meaningful activities;
Attitude towards oneself, adaptation of a person in the world is largely determined by the relationship between the real and the ideal "I" (own claims);
The conflict between the real and ideal "I", as well as between self-image and real experience, serves as an obstacle to the healthy functioning and development of the personality;
The subject seeks to protect his "I", to maintain a sense of self-worth; and maximize your self-esteem.
Self-esteem (self-respect, attitude towards oneself) is expressed in experience, in feelings experienced in relation to oneself;
Self-esteem depends on the norms of assessments learned by the individual;
Self-esteem is closely related to the level of claims.
Subsequent studies of self-esteem lie either in the sphere of integrating the achievements of the initial theoretical approaches to the problem of "I" and self-consciousness, or in the development, deepening and empirical verification of some individual aspects of one or another direction.
