Britain recognized the independence of America. War for the independence of the North American colonies of England. US education. State power structure

Was under British control. Until 1775, these colonies were subject to exorbitant taxes and fees, which caused discontent among the population. The American War of Independence was the logical conclusion of this part of their history and economic development. As a result of events that lasted 8 years, a state was formed, called

The British government considered the territories of North America as a source of cheap raw materials and profitable. The last straw was for all printed matter. Great Britain accepted it without agreement with the colonies. It was declared to the law. Further, the British government decided to introduce a customs fee. When a shipment of English tea arrived at the port of Boston, the price of which included opponents of British policy, attacked the ships and drowned their cargo. Thus began the American War of Independence.

Armed detachments began to be created in the colonies to fight the colonialists. At the Continental Congress, a decision was made to ban the import of English goods. Some of the population remained on the side of the British government. They were called Loyalists. It was they who provided assistance to the troops of the colonialists.

Armed clashes between British troops and militia units began. In April 1775 the British were attacked and forced to retreat. The ranks of the militia were replenished with volunteers. They put up a desperate resistance, as a result of which the British troops surrendered their positions. The American War of Independence was gaining momentum.

At Charlestown, the British troops received the support of the fleet and took up a more reliable position. Then there was another major battle at Bunker. It was an attempt by the British to take back Boston, but they failed.

Meanwhile, a continental army was created, led by George Washington. Thanks to his successful command, the British left the territory in the Boston area and retreated.

On July 4, 1776, a declaration was adopted that provided for the separation of 13 colonies from Great Britain. But the Revolutionary War and the formation of the United States were not yet over. The British government did not want to give up its positions and lose the territory of North America.

Continental troops crossed the Canadian border in the province of Quebec. They wanted to win over the people of the country to their side. However, the rebels did not find support there - the Canadians were afraid to fall under the influence of their neighbor.

In 1776 there was a battle in the New York area. English troops drove the rebels out of the city. However, Washington organized a surprise attack and defeated the British, having at its disposal 10 times fewer soldiers.

For the next two years, the opponents did not take any serious action and kept their distance from each other. In 1778, France joined the rebel forces to retake part of the territory of Canada. This allowed the continental troops to strengthen their positions.

From 1880 to 1882 the most important battles took place. The American Revolutionary War was drawing to a close. The rebel troops won several important victories. The French government stopped hostilities and withdrew its army. The bloody wars are over.

In 1782, an agreement was signed between the United States and England recognizing the independence of the colonies. A year later, it was confirmed by an agreement between France and England. As a result, the American colonies became independent, and part of the territories of Canada remained under the influence of the British.

At the end of 1783, there were no English troops left in the United States. The American War of Independence began a new stage in the development of this country.

War of Independence of the North American Colonies
The war for independence is a double meaning - military action and an act of self-determination. Lots of unresolved issues.
Chronology. The question is when to start?
1765-1775 - prehistory;
1775-1783 - the Revolutionary War itself;
1783-1789 - new legislation and a new constitution. Federal state of the North American states.
The preliminary period is 1765-1775. The level of self-consciousness of Americans was very high. 1763 - planters and farmers reacted sharply negatively to the ban on settling behind the Allen Mountains (i.e., the prohibition of squatting). Stamp Act (1765) - all printed publications and legal documents were taxed. There is a slogan - "No laws without representation!". The Virginia Assembly opposed the law (Patrick Henry led the opposition). Henry introduced a proposal to the Virginia Assembly that Virginia itself could impose taxes. He uttered the famous phrase "Give freedom or give death." Henry's resolution was adopted in a truncated form. The Decree on the permanent deployment of English troops (1765) - the states of New York and Pennsylvania were especially indignant. Massachusetts proposes to convene Congress - the king was given a complaint against representatives of the bureaucracy. The colonists questioned the right of the English Parliament to make laws. The Sons of Liberty organization - demanded the repeal of the Stamp Act and called for a boycott of English goods. Various actions were taken against the tax collectors. Many merchants themselves began to refuse to buy English goods for sale. March 1775 - Boston massacre, 1st moment of break with the metropolis, 5 people were killed. Regulatory Farm Movement – ​​advocated for a fair tax system. Kvit-rent they offered to cancel. Correspondent committees - they tried to tie together all the colonies. February 1776 - the abolition of the Stamp Duty Act, but decrees were adopted that consolidated the right of the supremacy of the metropolis in relation to the colony. Townshend Acts of 1767 1) setting new duties on paints, tea, paper and glass; 2) the creation of the Supreme Customs Administration with headquarters in Boston; 3) Dissolution of the New York State Assembly because it did not support the Housing Act. A boycott of English goods was declared, which caused incredible damage to the crown. In 1771, compared with 1770, imports decreased by 2.5 times. The Townshend Acts were repealed in 1771, but the tea duty remained. She was a kind of pretext and pretext for the start of the war. 1773 - The British government decides that the right to preferential trade in tea (duty-free) is transferred to the East India Company. The duty on tea was = 3 pence. The duty was then halved. However, resistance grew. The smugglers played an active role - they initiated the adoption of countermeasures against this law. December 1773 - Boston Tea Party, East India Company tea thrown overboard by Samuel Adams and J. Hancock. Repressive acts: 1774 - Boston port was blockaded and declared closed; 1774 - deprivation of the Massachusetts colony for self-government, General Thomas Gage was appointed its governor - he had emergency powers. The extreme severity of these acts.
1774 Boston committee asked all other colonies to meet in assembly. September 5, 1774 - 1st Continental Congress. Here, mostly supporters of reconciliation. It was necessary to ensure the rights of the colonists. It was decided to terminate trade relations with England. People began to create armed squads of minutemen - a kind of rapid reaction squads. Acts of mass disobedience began. The English fleet began a blockade of the American states. The commander of the British army is General Thomas Gage. April 19, 1775 0 1st clash of colonists with English troops. Earlier, on February 1, 1775, the Massachusetts Assembly created a militia (militia) and began to procure weapons (an arsenal near Concord and Lexington). Gage decided to capture him. The colonists forced the enemy to retreat. British losses - 74 officers and 134 soldiers. May 10, 1775 - 2nd Continental Congress in Philadelphia. The focus of the Congress is the question "What should be done?". A decision was made to create a regular armed forces - the Continental Army, the commander-in-chief - George Washington. All the colonies began to raise funds for the creation of the Continental Army. The situation, however, remained very ambiguous. Thomas Paine, 1776, "Common Sense". The bottom line is that it is not worth negotiating with the English king, but it is necessary to create an independent state. The British response is to crush the troops by any means necessary. In the spring of 1776, Samuel Adams's proposal to form their own governments in the colonies was approved. This preamble caused the most controversy. The decision to secede was never made. Independence Project - 1) the colonies are independent states and they are released from all obligations in relation to the colonies; 2) it is necessary to seek international support; 3) it is necessary to pass a law on the creation of a confederate device for the states. This project was prepared and adopted by the Declaration of Independence. Its most important provisions are: 1) the main sovereign object is the people; 2) a new state is created - the USA. During this revolution, he folded the bloc of the ruling elite - planters + commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. Three types of adopted acts: 1) confiscation of property of loyalists; 2) ports are open to everyone except the UK; 3) confiscation of all the king's lands. This meant a complete break. The Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. After that, the creation of local assemblies begins on the basis of the local division of powers (New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, North Carolina - unicameral parliament). The Articles of Confederation are adopted in 1781. All states decided to convene a common continental congress. His decisions were purely advisory in nature; interstate ties are not very strong.

Some battles of the War of Independence: 1) 1776-79 - the successful actions of the English General Clinton in Georgia and South Carolina. If we talk about the nature of this war, then it is mostly partisan. These are not European wars and there are no major battles. This is confirmed by the first major battle won by the rebels - 2) A fracture in the water - October 17, 1777, the victory of the army of Saratoga + the surrender of the troops of General Cornwallis in Yorktown (Virginia). The American-French army numbered only 20 thousand, the British army - 9. 3) 1783 - the battle of Cuddalore, the victory of the French fleet, the defeat of the English squadron of Admiral Hughes. The result of the war - the Treaty of Versailles, September 3, 1783 - at the moment, only the article on the recognition of the independence of the United States by England has remained in force.

The American bourgeois revolution and the American War of Independence is an outstanding event in world history, because for the first time in the history of Christian civilization a democratic republic arose, putting human rights at the forefront, proclaiming the original, natural equality before the law of people, regardless of their religious, national affiliation.

Years of the American Revolutionary War and the American Revolution 1775-1783

Causes

In the second half of the 18th century, an acute contradiction arose between the rapid growth of capitalist relations in the English colonies of North America and the nature of their management from London: it exhausted the financial resources of England, which decided to improve the situation by imposing taxes on the colonies, at the same time, the powerful economic development of the colonies awakened in them people's desire for independence
1763 - To combat the smuggling of goods from the French and Dutch colonies in the West Indies, the English fleet began patrolling the North American coast

“Control over maritime trade has always existed, but in the past violations were overlooked. Moreover, the previous attempts of the British authorities were seen as an attack on "the complete freedom of illegal trade", causing the righteous indignation of both the colonists and the English customs officers, who lived in peace and harmony with the smugglers, of which there were a great many. The parties cordially treated each other. The Boston Newsletter, in an obituary for the worthy toll collector of His Majesty, noted his "greatest humanism", expressed in the fact that "he politely instructed ship captains how to avoid violating the laws of commerce." Now the idyll is over. Officers of the Royal Navy zealously seized smuggled goods, for they were getting half their value. Another threat loomed - the British authorities put into effect "orders of assistance" - warrants to search any premises in order to detect and seize prohibited goods. Freeborn Englishmen, and wealthy people in the colonies considered themselves to be such, howled - the principle “my house is my fortress” was crumbling. (N. Yakovlev "Washington")

• 1763 - The English Parliament banned the issue of paper money in the colonies, requiring the payment of all and all fees and duties in silver.
• 1764 - The Sugar Law doubled the tax on sugar, wine, coffee, textiles and other imported goods.
• 1765 - Housing Act, allowing the placement of soldiers and officers of the English army to stay among the population
• 1765 - Stamp duty: duty on all legal documents
• 1766 - Abolition of Stamp Duty
• 1767 - New duties on the import of goods from England, the so-called. Townshed tolls

At the same time, taxes and fees raised on the colonists, even collected in their entirety, were lower than those paid by the subjects of the king in the British Isles.

“Nevertheless, the public of the colonies was indignant at the arbitrariness, a wave of protests and demonstrations against parliament rose, various opposition organizations began to emerge, the Sons of Liberty, Vox Populi, Sons of Neptune ... The Virginia Assembly adopted a resolution that she alone, not legislators from across the ocean, can tax Virginians. In October 1765, representatives of the nine colonies adopted a petition in New York to the king and parliament demanding the repeal of the stamp duty law. the text of the stamp duty law was printed with the image of a skull instead of a crown, funeral knells were heard in churches, flags were half-lowered, effigies of the king's ministers hung on the gallows, in Massachusetts the governor's house was vandalized. All the tax collectors resigned their seats, partly in solidarity with the protest movement, partly out of fear of physical harm. Merchants agreed not to buy English goods, liaison committees that arose in various cities agreed on unity of action. Tensions between the colonies and the mother country grew

Before the American War of Independence

• 1768 - North Carolina farmers, who called themselves equalizers, demanded the repeal of inconvenient land laws
• 1769 April - Colonies renounce English goods until Townshed taxes are repealed
• 1769 May - Virginia Assembly passes a petition to King George III asking him to intervene in favor of the trampled rights of the colonists.
• 1770, March 5 - "Boston bloodshed." In Boston, English soldiers opened fire on the crowd, who showered them with ridicule. Several people were killed. The army hastily withdrawn from the city
• 1770 - Townshed laws repealed
• 1771 - troops scattered the "equalizers" of North Carolina, several dozen people were killed
• 1774 - An act passed by Parliament to transfer land between the Mississippi and Ohio to the Canadian province of Quebec, which made it impossible for New England planters to occupy new land

boston tea party

The East India Company paid a high tax on the value of tea that was imported into Britain. Tea imported into Holland was not taxed, so smuggled Dutch tea was much cheaper. The East India Company was on the verge of bankruptcy. She could improve matters by selling the huge stocks of tea accumulated in warehouses to the Americans. After all, even with the payment of an insignificant duty - three pence per pound of weight - tea imported from England will be the cheapest on the American market. However, for Americans who thrived on smuggled tea trade, such an offer promised losses. There was widespread propaganda against "this poison brought to America, this unhealthy tea" imported from India.
- 1773, May 10 - Parliament passed the tea law, beneficial to the East India Company and not beneficial to the colonists
- 1773, July - Ports of North America are selected, where the East India Company will deliver a cargo of tea - Boston, New York, Philadelphia
- 1773, September, October - seven ships with a cargo of tea set off for the shores of North America
- 1773, late November - the ship "Dartmouth" delivered a batch of tea to the port of Boston
- November 29, 1773 - The people of Boston demanded that the ship be sent back to England.
- 1773, December 16 - Several people, disguised as Indians, boarded a ship and threw bales of tea into the sea.
- 1774 - The British government closed the port of Boston, imposed an embargo on trade with Massachusetts, banned local residents from fishing, removed local administration and established martial law

The Boston Tea Party marks the start of the American War of Independence

• 1774 - Virginia Assembly dissolved
• September 5, 1774 - The first Continental Congress opens in Philadelphia.
• 1774, September 9 - Congress approved the "Suffolk Resolutions", drawn up by the leaders of Suffolk County, Massachusetts, where Boston was the main city. Written by S. Adams and D. Warren, they urged not to obey "intolerable laws." Referring to the ideas of the XVIII century - natural law and theory, the authors insisted that the monarch who tramples them is a tyrant.
• 1774, October 14 - Congress adopted an appeal to the English king, the so-called "Declaration of Rights and Complaints", which contained a statement about the rights of the American colonies to "life, liberty and property" and protested against the customs and tax policy of England

At that moment, Congressional delegates were not yet Republicans and did not think about independence. The crown was recognized as the main connecting element of the empire. The colonists "have so far decided to act only by peaceful means." From December 1, 1774, the import of goods from the metropolis was prohibited, and if London did not change their minds before autumn, then from October 1, 1775, it was planned to introduce an embargo on exports to England. In order to give greater weight to the threat, an obligation was entered into the text of the "Declaration" - not to buy East Indian tea, indigo and slaves, and also to boycott almost all products of the British West Indies.

American War of Independence. Briefly

“To oversee the implementation of the embargo, security committees have arisen on the ground. Disturbing reports flew from the royal governors of the colonies to London. They reported that the region was out of obedience. The British authorities were afraid of strengthening the forces of the revolution. They took action."

• 1775 April 18 - First battle of the War of Independence - at Lexington and Concord. The first serious casualties in the British army
• May 10, 1775 - Second Continental Congress opens in Philadelphia
• 1775, end of May - the size of the Boston garrison was increased by 6.5 thousand people
• 1775, June 16 - J. Washington appointed commander of the Continental Army
• 1775, June 17 - battle near Boston on the heights of Breed Hill and Bulker Hill. Big losses on both sides

The strategy and tactics of the European wars of the 18th century were subject to certain rules, the fighting was limited. The pursuit of the defeated enemy was not brought to an end, since the victor, having broken his army into small detachments, risked that the soldiers, outside the framework of iron discipline, would scatter. The monarchs did not seek the total extermination of each other's armies. Hence the widespread custom of exchanging prisoners. The fighting was carried out only in warm weather; by December, the armies were in winter quarters. The armies, in addition to battles in the open field, tried to intercept each other's communications, besieging key fortresses. Settlements, as a rule, were not destroyed, for what is the point for a monarch to acquire a devastated province? The supply of troops was ensured by the preparation of fortresses and shops at the theater of war, requisitions from the population were strictly controlled, because the approval of such actions would lead to the decomposition of the troops, undermine discipline

• 1775, October 2 - 6 equipped American ships took up privateering: the birth of the US Navy
• 1775, autumn - 1776 summer - the unsuccessful campaign of the Americans in Canada, Montreal was occupied, but Quebec did not give up
• September 1775 - King George III turned to Catherine II with a request to sell him 20 thousand Cossacks to fight the colonies. Catherine refused. Instead of Russians, Georg hired Germans
• 1775 October - Bombing of Falmouth by the English fleet
• 1775 December - The English Parliament declared that the colonies were no longer under English protection.
• 1775, late December - most of Washington's army went home. He left about 8 thousand people
• 1776, January 9 - Thomas Paine's pamphlet "Common Sense" was published, promoting the idea of ​​​​independence and played a significant role in the radicalization of the mentality of American society
• 1776 January - Bombing of Norfolk by the English fleet
• 1776, beginning of spring - the American army enriched itself with 59 guns from Fort Tikanderoga
• 1776, March 3 - Silas Dean is sent to Paris to explain to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of King Louis XVI Vergennes: "There is a high probability that the colonies will become independent"
• 1776, March 3-4 - all American artillery is drawn to Boston
• 1776, March 17 - The British left Boston

A little over ten years before the events described, during the Seven Years' War, England put up an army of 300 thousand people. To suppress the "rebellion" of the American colonies, they could not gather an army of 55 thousand people, the best British military leaders and naval commanders rejected the king's proposals to fight the Americans, the people looked at the campaign launched by the king as a fratricidal war

• 1776 May - Second Continental Congress opens
• July 4, 1776 - Congress passed the Declaration of Independence

“We proceed from the self-evident truth that all men are created equal and endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. To secure these rights, governments are instituted by men, deriving their legitimate authority from the consent of the governed. In the event that any form of government becomes destructive to these very ends, the people have the right to change or abolish it and establish a new government based on such principles and forms of organization of power as, in their opinion, will best ensure the safety and happiness of the people. »

• 1776, June 28 - Americans repelled an English landing near Charleston
• 1776, August 22 - unsuccessful battle for the Americans off Long Island
• 1776, September 15 - The British occupied New York

• 1776, October 28 - unsuccessful battle for the Americans at Pell's Point
• 1776, November 16 - unsuccessful battle for the Americans at Fort Lee
• December 26, 1776 - American victory at Trenton
• January 3, 1777 - American victory at the Battle of Princeton
• 1777, September - B. Franklin was appointed US representative in France
• 1777, September 11 - the defeat of the Americans near Philadelphia
• 1777, September 26 - the British entered the US capital of Philadelphia
• 1777, October 17 - American victory in the battle of Saratoga, which convinced the French authorities to enter the war against England on the side of the United States
• 1777 November - States discuss first American constitution - "Articles of Confederation" with weak central authority
• winter 1777-1778 - terrible wintering of Washington's army in Valley Forge

Everything was lacking - clothes, shoes, food. Before they arrived at Valley Forge, Washington was informed that 2,898 soldiers were "bare or naked." A few weeks later, the figure jumped to 4,000. In Valley Forge, about two and a half thousand people died of disease and exhaustion. Washington's letter to Congress December 26, 1777: "... if fundamental changes are not immediately made, our army will face one of the following three outcomes - starve to death, disintegrate, or scatter to get food as best as possible"

• 1778 April - France enters the war on the side of the United States
• 1778, February 6 - The United States and France signed a treaty of alliance
• 1778, June 18 - The British left Philadelphia
• 1778, June 27 - a successful battle for the Americans at Monmouth Court House
• 1778, July 4 - Indian tribes, incited by the British, staged a brutal pogrom of the farmers of the Wyoming Valley

The entry into the war of France, and from June 16, 1779, Spain significantly worsened the position of England at sea. The attacks of the French and Spaniards on the numerous colonies of England forced London to take defensive actions, diverting the army from the war with the United States. Since 1781, the situation of England has become even more complicated - the war against France, Spain, Holland and the USA

• 1779, summer - the revenge of the Americans on the Iroquois: about 40 of their villages were destroyed
• 1780, May 12, the British captured Charleston
• 1780, August 16 - an unsuccessful battle for the Americans at Camden in South Carolina
• 1781, January 1, January 21 - riots of hungry, naked, unpaid soldiers of the army of Washington
• 1781, October 19 - the defeat of the British troops at the Battle of Yorktown, after which the war almost ended

A series of defeats in the West Indies, the capture of Minorca by Spain, the successes of the French in other than American theaters led to the fall of North's cabinet. In March 1782, Rockingham's cabinet was formed in England, which had repealed the Stamp Act 17 years earlier. Parliament adopted a resolution declaring an enemy of Britain anyone and everyone who wants to continue the war in America, and the government began secret negotiations with American representatives in Europe to conclude peace in the United States. They were led in Paris by D. Jay, D. Adams and B. Franklin

What happened next?

• 1782, April 18 - truce in the War of Independence
• 1782, November 30 - peace treaty between the United States and England
• 1783, January 20 - peace treaty between England and France
• January 20, 1783 - Washington's army enters New York
• 1783, September 3 - Treaty of Paris, ending the American Revolution and the Revolutionary War
• 1787, May 14-September 17 - Meetings of the constitutional convention to draft the US constitution
• 1787, December-1788, June - ratification of the new constitution by the states
• 1789, April 30 - the first US Washington took office

thirteen states of america

• South Carolina
• North Carolina
• Georgia
• Pennsylvania
• Virginia
• New Jersey
• New Hampshire
• Massachusetts
• Connecticut
• Rhode Island
• Delaware
• New York
• Maryland

Outcomes of the American War of Independence and the American Revolution

The struggle of the North American colonies for independence became an outstanding event in the history of the confrontation between capitalism and feudalism. The victory in it had a significant impact on the preparation of bourgeois revolutions in Europe, in particular

Chapter II

Revolutionary War (1775–1783)

Figures in American History:

George Washington (1732–1799)

Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)

Thomas Paine (1737–1809)

Samuel Adams (1722–1803)

Events and dates:

1775, spring- "Rebellion" of the colonies of North America against England:

Virginia

Connecticut

Massachusetts

Maryland

New Jersey

New Hampshire

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

North Carolina

South Carolina

Georgia (from September 1775)

1783, September 3 - The signing of a peace treaty between the United States and England. End of the Revolutionary War

Start of hostilities

The decisions and petitions of the First Continental Congress were brought to the attention of the members of the English Parliament on January 19, 1775. The next day, realizing the danger of the situation, one of the members of the House of Lords made a proposal to appeal to the king recommending the immediate withdrawal of British troops from the American continent. This proposal did not find support among his colleagues, like other proposals aimed at easing tensions between the mother country and the colonies. Moreover, the events in Massachusetts were called a rebellion against the legitimate authorities.

At the end of March, the British Parliament adopted a decision to prohibit the New England colonies from trading with any state except England and the British West Indies (from July 1), as well as to close access for colonists to active fishing zones in the North Atlantic (from July 30). When word reached London two weeks later that New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina had ratified the decisions of the Continental Congress, the ban was extended to new "rebels."

Legislative sanctions were accompanied by incessant attempts by the mother country to strengthen the power over the colonies, which was slipping out of its hands. It did not come to direct military clashes, although the command of the British troops had already received an order in April authorizing the use of force if it became necessary to ensure the implementation of the laws of the British Empire by the colonies.

On February 1, 1775, the provincial congress of Massachusetts considered it necessary to begin preparations for a possible military conflict and, for this purpose, formed its own militia - the militia. After receiving instructions from London, the commander of the British troops in the colonies, General T. Gage, decided to launch a preemptive strike. On April 19, the British attempted to blockade the main supply center of the colony - Concord, located at a distance of 21 miles from Boston, and destroy the food and military equipment stored there. "The English are coming!" - these words are known in American history as the messenger of the patriots Paul Revere, who was the first to bring the news of the enemy offensive to Lexington (a suburb of Boston). It was here that the first battle of the War of Independence took place. On the same day, the Battle of Concord took place. As a result of the first battles with the colonial militia, the British suffered significant losses - 73 people were killed and 174 were wounded. The colonists forced the enemy to retreat, although they also suffered significant losses. Subjected to countless armed attacks by the local population on the way of their retreat from Lexington, the British troops entered Boston. The news of the defeat at Lexington quickly spread throughout the colonies. Under arms in Massachusetts, 13.6 thousand “minutemen” who had already undergone military training and did not sympathize with the metropolis, were called up, from which detachments of the people's militia began to form, and the Massachusetts Congress turned to the authorities of neighboring colonies for help. After May 20, colonists began to arrive in Massachusetts from neighboring Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Besieged from all sides, Boston was completely isolated. Returning from London, B. Franklin came to the conclusion that "all of America, from one end of the twelve United Provinces to the other, is actively learning how to handle weapons ... their unanimity is amazing." The war for independence began to take on a national scale.

On May 10, American troops captured Fort Ticonderoga in the New York colony, and on the same day the Second Continental Congress began its work in Philadelphia, declaring all the colonies under a state of siege and urging them to adopt their own constitutions. Loyal attitude towards the British crown continued to prevail among the congress delegates. The congress participants focused their attention on the need to create a viable union, headed by an effectively functioning central executive body, but without giving it unlimited powers, similar to those possessed by the authorities of the metropolis. The unicameral congress built its work on the principle of "one colony - one vote", and in order to make a binding decision for all, nine out of thirteen votes were required. The decisions he made applied only to administrative units, but not to their population. However, even such a situation did not guarantee the unconditional implementation of these decisions, since the initially divided Congress did not have any means of coercion at its disposal. According to contemporaries, the congress was not a legislative, but rather an advisory body of power that served as the center of diplomatic negotiations between the colonies.

It took years to develop the provisions that could form the basis of the future constitution of the American state, during which the war for independence continued with varying success. Until 1781, the congress served as the highest administrative body of the colonies.

One of the primary problems was the creation of the regular armed forces of the colonies - the Continental Army. By decision of Congress, 43-year-old Colonel George Washington, one of the richest planters and slave owners, known since the Seven Years War, was appointed its commander in chief. He had already established himself as an ardent champion of independence and had become a member of congressional military committees. Unsure of his military abilities, Washington reluctantly accepted the appointment, but refused the financial reward. The new commander, who immediately received the rank of general, set about creating the armed forces of the American state. As a result, by the end of the Revolutionary War, the unprofessional and poorly armed "minutemen" soldiers (the main armed contingent of the colonies) were turned into a reserve of the regular army.

No less important were the tasks of finding financial resources for the conduct of hostilities and the maintenance of the armed forces, as well as the search for allies in the war against England. This required the development of basic principles and directions of foreign policy. However, the European monarchies, despite the rejection of the British crown's claim to the dominant position on the continent, were not ready to provide military or economic assistance to the North American colonies, because they were not sure of their ability to succeed in the war against such a powerful enemy. In addition, information about the republican views of the ideologues of the American War of Independence and their statements in favor of the democratic foundations of the future American administration, which reached European capitals, could not but cause wariness among the monarchs of France, Spain and Russia.

The British crown also began to make desperate efforts to enlist the political and military support of other European states, since initially London did not have sufficient manpower reserves to wage a war across the ocean. In June 1775, on the basis of an erroneous report by the English envoy in St. Petersburg, the English King George (George) III came to the conclusion that the Russian Empress Catherine II was ready to support Great Britain in its conflict with the North American colonies. In his letter, the king gratefully accepted the supposedly promised help, which, he believed, might be necessary "for the suppression of the revolt in the American colonies." In a response letter, the empress informed the British monarch about the impossibility for Russia to provide such assistance.

The official explanation for the refusal was a reference to the fatigue of the Russian troops after the six-year war with Turkey and the suppression of the Pugachev region. The real reason for the refusal, in addition to a hostile personal attitude towards George III, was the desire of Catherine II to teach a lesson to Great Britain, whose maritime and commercial expansion was detrimental to Russian interests. In her private letters, the empress expressed her conviction that the cause of the American colonies was right and predicted their victory. Already in June 1775, she came to the conclusion that "America will become independent from Europe" during her lifetime and that "the colonies said goodbye to England forever." The new appeals of George III that followed in 1776 with a request to reconsider the earlier decision and send Russian Cossacks, accustomed to conducting military operations in the steppe conditions, to help the British troops had a similar result: Catherine did not want to “dark the last years of her reign by participating in the war” .

More successful were the attempts of the English king in Germany, at that time split into more than 300 principalities, some of the heads of which agreed on favorable financial terms to help England in the fight against recalcitrant colonies. The most active assistance to George III was provided by the Principality of Hesse, which sent more than 30 thousand of its soldiers to North America to fight the rebellious colonists. The Hessians proved to be not very reliable soldiers and in November 1776 they suffered a serious defeat from the Continental Army near Trenton.

Although individual Indian tribes took part in the Revolutionary War on the side of the colonists, the vast majority of Indians fought on the side of the British troops primarily because they were associated with measures to limit the penetration of American settlers into Indian lands beyond the Allegheny Mountains. The most active enemies of the colonies were the Mohawks and Senecas, led by the leader Taendanegea, who received the rank of colonel in the English army and is known in American history under the name of Joseph Brant.

Meanwhile, at the initial stage of the Revolutionary War, after successful battles at Concord and Lexington, events did not always develop in favor of the colonists. The first major battle of the war was the clash between the Continental Army and the British troops at Bunker Hill (near Boston)

June 17, 1775 Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the British, who lost about half of their 2,000th troops in battle, managed to defeat General Washington. The defeat did not affect the determination of the colonists to succeed in the war for their independence - the British offer addressed to them to capitulate in exchange for an amnesty for the rebels was categorically rejected. Moreover, an attempt was made by American patriots to invade English Canada, which the Continental Congress was going to turn into the 14th state. The metropolis has received convincing evidence that London is opposed not by an amorphous crowd of rebels, as it was before, but by an ideologically cohesive and organizational united force numbering 2.5 million people, which the English state with its 11 million population will have to reckon with.

Impressed by the victory at Bunker Hill, the British, convinced of their military superiority, rejected the “Olive Branch Petition” adopted by the Second Continental Congress, expressing the hope for the possibility of reconciliation of the parties. King George III refused to even read the message addressed to him, declaring the Americans rebels. The response of the Continental Congress was a statement on behalf of the colonies about the determination of citizens "to die free rather than live in slavery." In December 1775, by decision of the British government, all American merchant ships were declared subject to confiscation by the British Navy. Congress responded by arming privately owned privateer ships to fight the British, which marked the beginning of the American Navy. At the same time, it was decided to create a Committee of Secret Correspondence under the Congress and entrust it with an extremely important task - the search for sources of military and financial assistance to the colonies on the European continent.

Less than a month later, Congress received information about the readiness of France, England's main political and economic rival, to provide such assistance. With the active participation of B. Franklin, sent in 1776 on a special mission to Paris, already in early May 1777, the French king Louis (Louis) XVI decided to allocate weapons and military equipment to the American colonies in the amount of $ 1 million. Spain soon declared its readiness to help them, acting so more out of solidarity with its ally France than out of sympathy for the rebellious colonies. Madrid supplied weapons, gunpowder, copper, tin, horse harness, military uniforms, shoes, etc. However, the material and financial assistance provided by Spain was 13 times less than French.

The conviction of the colonists in the justice of their struggle for independence was significantly promoted by the publication in Philadelphia in January 1776 of one of the most important works of American history - Thomas Paine's anonymously published incendiary pamphlet "Common Sense", which questioned the rationality of the monarchical form of government and called the English King George III "royal monster", personally responsible for all acts of injustice committed against the colonists. Only the independence of America would ensure prosperity for its people, argued Payne, a newly minted American who arrived on the continent from England a little over a year ago. Payne's words resonated with Americans. Paine's pamphlet, printed in the colonies with a circulation of 120,000 copies, became the main propaganda weapon of the colonies in their struggle for secession from England.

Declaration of Independence

On May 25, 1776, on the initiative of S. Adams, the Continental Congress authorized the transformation of the colonies into republics independent of England - states with their own constitutions. On July 2, congressional delegates officially voted for independence, and on July 4, 1776, they adopted the Declaration of Independence, the founding document of the American Revolution.

The day the declaration was approved is considered to be the beginning of the history of an independent American state, although the true date of the declaration of American independence is July 2, 1776. The final text of this document included 80 amendments proposed during its discussion by congressional delegates. Copies of it (the original has been lost) were sent to all colonies to familiarize the population. The full text of the Declaration of Independence was published in all New York newspapers, and a special edition of the Journal contained an insert with the following appeal to readers: "Separate it from the rest of the newspaper and hang it for all to see in your homes."

In this document, the main author of which is Jefferson, proclaimed the principle of popular sovereignty as the basis of government. The separation of 13 colonies from the British metropolis and the formation of the United States of America were officially confirmed. “All people,” the declaration said, “are created equal and are endowed by the Creator with certain inalienable rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ... If any state system violates these rights, then the people have the right to change it or abolish and establish a new system based on such principles and organizing government in such forms as should best ensure the security and welfare of the people. In principle, with the exception of this introductory part, as well as the final paragraph of the final part, which were clearly declarative and even propagandistic in nature, the main text of the declaration was an accusation against King George III with a detailed list of his abuses of power.

The declaration marked the achievement of unity of positions among the members of the Continental Congress on the issue of American independence. The unanimity of the representatives of the colonies manifested itself on another issue - the need to search for allies in Europe and the possibility of urgently obtaining financial loans and loans from them. On all other issues there was no such unity. The builders of an independent American state still had several more years of difficult and heated disputes over the future form of government, the powers and prerogatives of the executive branch, the foundations of federalism, the rights and obligations of the states, and other equally fateful problems.

During the very first meetings of Congress, the confiscation of the property of loyalists was announced, which included, in particular, many landowners, clergy of the Anglican Church and officials of the colonial administrations appointed by London. All ports of the colonies were declared open to the ships of all countries, with the exception of England. American supporters of the English king were subject to disarmament, and all lands belonging to George III were declared confiscated. The determination to achieve final liberation from the yoke of the British crown was especially necessary at a time when hostilities did not always develop successfully for the colonists.

The battle near New York ended in August 1776 with the defeat of the Continental Army, as a result of which the superior British forces occupied New York, and the troops of George Washington were forced to retreat. An English naval squadron, impressive in size and armament, anchored in the port of New York. During the fighting, on the initiative of the British, several meetings were held with the participation of the commander of the British troops, General W. Howe, his brother, the commander of the naval forces, Admiral R. Howe, and the American military, led by George Washington. The British offered the "rebels" to capitulate on the terms of their full amnesty, but with the obligatory denunciation of the Declaration of Independence. After refusing to surrender, the fighting continued, resulting in significant fire damage to New York City. George Washington's losses numbered in the thousands, and his troops were forced to retreat to the west. Crossing the river Delaware, they ended up in Pennsylvania. On December 10, 1776, the Continental Congress warned the local population of the approach of British troops and urged them to resist, but in anticipation of the enemy's further advance, two days later, the congress in full strength left Philadelphia for Baltimore. In these difficult months for the young republic, T. Payne wrote: “This is a time of severe trials for the human soul: a soldier for the summer period and a patriot in sunny weather in these days of crisis will evade service for the benefit of his country; but the one who survives now(italics by T. Payne. - Auth.), deserves the love and gratitude of men and women. Tyranny, like hell, is not easy to overcome. But we have a consolation - the more severe the conflict, the more glorious the victory will be.

However, the illusory prospect of ultimate victory served as little consolation to many members of Congress who openly expressed their dissatisfaction with the military leadership of General Washington (especially after his defeat at New York). "Thousands of human lives and property worth millions are sacrificed every year for the incompetence of our commander in chief," said one of Washington's harshest critics, John Sargent. However, the general also had many well-founded claims against the Congress, which was unable to provide sufficient funding and the necessary assistance to the army. By this time, despair had seized Washington to such an extent that he confessed: “I was exhausted almost to death. I feel like the game is almost over." The situation was complicated by the fact that the soldiers also needed rest; many volunteers, not hoping for an early replacement, were ready to leave the army without permission. As a result, often before decisive battles, the command had to recruit new recruits.

However, further inaction threatened not only the personal career of General Washington and the combat readiness of his army, but also the future of the American state. In the Christmas week of 1776, in a counteroffensive, the Continental Army defeated the Hessians, capturing about a thousand of these English mercenaries, and captured Trenton, the main city of New Jersey. The peace of mind of politicians and the morale of the army were temporarily restored, and a week later reinforced by a second victory at the Battle of Princeton. The British were pushed back to New Brunswick, but these victories could not prevent the wholesale desertion of the army, which was soon reduced to a thousand soldiers. The forced wintering of Washington's army in Morristown was the only reasonable solution. Only in the spring of 1777, after the completion of the next set of new recruits, the size of the army reached 9 thousand people and its combat capability was temporarily restored. But a few weeks before the battle of Bennington (August 1777), more than 400 people fled from the army, and during the siege of Newport (August 1778), 5 thousand deserted in a few days.

Washington's victories in New Jersey allowed the Continental Congress to return to Philadelphia and continue its activities. The focus of his attention continued to be the question of attracting allies in the fight against London and obtaining material assistance from them. The envoys sent by the congress to the capitals of the leading European countries - France, Austria, Germany, Spain, Prussia and the Duchy of Tuscany - were given broad powers. So, for declaring war on King George III, Spain was promised territories in Florida belonging to England; France, in addition to territorial acquisitions, was offered free fishing zones in the Newfoundland region.

In parallel with securing foreign support for the Americans in the struggle for independence, work was underway to recruit prominent foreign military leaders into the ranks of the Continental Army. By a decision of Congress, it was announced that the most experienced military specialists who speak English have the right to fight in the ranks of the American army. The heroes of the War of Independence were the French marquis and the American general Paul de Lafayette, the French brigadier general from Bavaria and the American major general Johann de Kalb, the Polish officer from Lithuania and the American engineer Colonel Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the Prussian staff officer and the American general Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a Polish officer and an American general, Count Casimerge Pulaski. The names of some of them have been preserved in the names of modern American cities, major engineering structures and streets. In various states of the USA there are cities of Jla-fayette, in the state of Ohio there is the city of Steubenville, one of the bridges in New York bears the name of Kosciuszko, in Washington there is Lafayette Square. The names of these heroes are also preserved in national memorials and memorable dates (Fort Pulaski, Memorial Day of General Pulaski). There were, of course, many more foreign participants in the American War of Independence. The Spaniards also took part in the war. Throughout the war, the governor of Spanish Louisiana, Bernardo de Galvez, actively fought against the British, which significantly contributed to the decrease in the effectiveness of their actions against the armies of George Washington (in honor of Galvez, the city of Galveston in the state of Texas was named after Galvez, monuments to Galvez were erected in Galveston, New ~ Orleans and Washington) With his successful actions against the British, Galvez ensured that part of the vast territory adjacent to the river was annexed to the Spanish possessions. Mississippi on both sides in the south of North America, as well as on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Thus was laid the foundation for the later development of a border conflict with the United States. History shows that more than 4,000 Spanish soldiers died in captivity on English prison ships anchored in New York harbor.

Articles of Confederation

In the summer and autumn of 1777, several events took place that were of great political importance for the young American state. On June 14, 1777, the Continental Congress approved the national flag of the United States, consisting of 13 red and white stripes and 13 stars, which personified the corresponding number of states.

And on November 15, after more than a year of discussion, Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation (and the Perpetual Union) - the prototype of the future constitution of the country. This historic document consolidated the revolutionary gains of the Americans, declared a republican system of government and proclaimed the Continental Congress the full government of the American state.

The adoption of this document - a kind of treaty of a conglomerate of individual administrative units, which received the unofficial name of the "League of Friendship", marked the first attempt to reconcile the interests of various segments of the population of the young American society. The social views and economic interests of the "plantation colonies" of the South had nothing in common with the interests of the "commercial colonies" of the North and especially the colonies of New England, just as different were the expectations and interests of the emerging northern bourgeoisie and the feudal lords of the slave-owning South.

The Articles of Confederation established a unicameral Congress of Confederation in which each state had one vote. Decisions on minor matters required a simple majority vote; decisions of paramount importance required a 2/3 majority. Any change in the Articles of Confederation could only be made with the consent of all 13 states. But the delegates of the Second Continental Congress were unable to make a decision that would satisfy everyone, which would determine the basis of the relationship between the confederation as a community of states and its constituent parts. The Confederation never received a single executive or judicial authority, a single tax authority, or a common law enforcement agency for all states. The survival of the confederation depended entirely on the willingness of individual states to comply with the decisions of Congress and the desire of the administrative authorities of the states to protect its interests. The only sources of replenishment of the treasury were reluctantly deducted, and therefore irregular tax receipts from some states and foreign loans.

The hopes of the authors of the Declaration of Independence for the "revolutionary consciousness" of the state authorities and citizens of the republic were not justified. From the date of ratification in 1781 until 1787, no attempt to amend the text of the Articles of Confederation was successful, because it did not receive the required support of all 13 states. Rhode Island has never supported a single amendment; Georgia has never paid a single cent of its tax dues; state delegates ignored congressional meetings, with the result that a quorum was rarely reached; Congress could not reach a consensus even on the introduction of a common 5 percent tax on imports for all states. The states were in constant conflict over border lines, fishing rights, and interstate customs duties. Common to all was the desire for separatism - the creation of "their own" independent state. One of the future "founding fathers" of the American state, Alexander Hamilton, later described the confederation as "a nation without a national government." The ongoing hostilities and the still unclear outcome of the war did not add enthusiasm and confidence even to the most active supporters of American statehood.

The summer of 1777 brought no success to the Continental Army. She again had to retreat, as a result of which the Congress was again forced to move - this time from Philadelphia occupied by the British, first to Lancaster, and then to York (Pennsylvania). The success of the battle of the Vermont militias with the Hessians at Bennington did not change the balance of power - throughout the war, the Hessian mercenaries were the least reliable warriors in the English service. The turning point occurred only in the battle of Saratoga (October 7), when the British suffered a major defeat. The English army capitulated, was escorted to Boston and sent to England under the obligation never again to participate in battles against America. The triumph of the Continental Army had not only a military, but also a political resonance - France, which believed in the final victory of the Americans, recognized on December 17 the independence of the former overseas colonies of England, and in February 1778 concluded two important agreements with the United States - the Treaty of Friendship and Trade (providing to the Americans , in particular, the most favored nation in trade) and the Treaty of Alliance (which provided for military cooperation between the two countries in the US struggle for its independence, as well as in the event of a war between England and France). It is assumed that this was done out of fear that the Americans might reach an agreement unfavorable for France with England, especially since information about the peace initiative put forward by London after the defeat at Saratoga reached Paris.

The active work of B. Franklin also played a role. At that time, he enjoyed great popularity in the political and public circles of France and managed to play on the fears of the French government about the peaceful outcome of the war overseas, which completely distracted England from active rivalry with France in Europe and depleted its material resources. On the French side, a prominent role in the American-French rapprochement was played by the famous playwright and poet Pierre de Beaumarchais, author of the plays The Marriage of Figaro and The Barber of Seville. He urged Louis XVI to provide all possible assistance to the colonists and ultimately succeeded in this. The King agreed with the argument that providing financial and military assistance to the Americans might at that stage be more effective and cheaper than entering into a direct military confrontation with England. With the direct participation of Beaumarchais, a company was founded in France, through which the governments of Spain and France supplied the American colonies with weapons and ammunition. During the first two and a half years of the Revolutionary War, 90% of the gunpowder stocks of the colonies came from Europe, and most of this ammunition was brought to America on 14 ships belonging to the Beaumarchais company. American privateer ships, which caused a lot of anxiety to English merchant and military ships on the high seas, found a safe haven and sources of replenishment in the ports of France.

The American-French rapprochement worried the British government to such an extent that it began to look for the possibility of concluding a peace agreement with the rebellious colonies. However, the English envoys sent to the New World were given an unequivocal answer - the former colonies are ready for peace negotiations only if London recognizes their independence and withdraws all its troops from their territories. The British crown could not agree to the granting of independence to the colonies. In October 1778, the British Parliament made an unsuccessful attempt to question the legitimacy of the American-French treaty and threatened the colonies with serious consequences if they refused the "reasonable proposals" of London.

Domestic situation in North America

At the start of the Revolutionary War, Americans were not a cohesive mass with a unified vision of the future of the nation, or even a unified vision of the need for a central government. Many of the patriotic Americans, including the “founding fathers” of the state, at one time even saw their future as part of the British Empire and believed that the only force capable of ensuring order in the colonies and preventing internecine war in North America was the English army. Later, almost the same people, including many wealthy planters and merchants, vigorously promoted the idea of ​​a strong central government without delegating any significant power functions to the states. Such views were dictated, on the one hand, by their conviction that only a strong central government could ensure the protection of their property, and, on the other hand, by fear of events in the country itself, torn apart by internal contradictions.

American farmers and craftsmen, in turn, feared a strong centralized authority, believing that, having acquired unlimited power functions, it would not differ in any way from the power of the British metropolis. They preferred the transfer of executive power to the states, whose administrative bodies would be under stricter popular control than the central government. Disputes around the issues of organizing the power structures of the future American state were complicated by the presence of serious socio-economic problems. One of the main problems was the lack of land for the rapidly growing population of the colonies. Beginning in 1763, the struggle for land became so intense that the country was in real danger of civil war. “The years before independence were indeed years of lofty pronouncement of high principles, but at the same time they were years of endless illegal actions against individuals, beatings, falling out in tar and feathers, breaking windows and destroying houses, setting fire to boats and ships. And there was practically no defense against such attacks, ”wrote one of the American historians, commenting on the clashes between the settlers.

The adoption of the Articles of Confederation was regarded as a victory for the forces that advocated limiting the power of the central government, which provided for the recognition of such important functions as the establishment of taxes and regulation of trade, i.e., precisely those functions that were the main bone of contention between the colonies and metropolis. Lacking tax revenues, the Congress of the American Confederation found itself completely financially dependent on the states. He was assigned only the authority to conclude international treaties, declare war, form an army and navy, issue paper money and replenish the state treasury by selling public lands.

The course of the war

In the week before Christmas, 1777, General Washington's 9,000-strong Continental Army, defeated at Brandywine, began a hard winter at Valley Forge, "a gloomy and ill-supplied place," located 20 miles from Philadelphia. Over the winter, 2.5 thousand people died from hunger, cold and disease, more

3 thousand soldiers deserted. Only tough disciplinary measures prevented the dangerous development of a soldier's rebellion that was brewing in the troops. This winter proved difficult for the British as well, as they did not dare to engage the exhausted Continental Army, giving it enough time to gather strength.

Active hostilities continued only in the summer of 1778, but before that, the British made an attempt in May to provoke the involvement of the Iroquois Indian tribe in the war, which attacked and burned the town of Cobleskill in western New York State. Fearing active intervention in the war by the French navy, which threatened the northeastern coast of the continent, the English General G. Clinton decided to evacuate his troops from Philadelphia, which was not slow to take advantage of J. Washington. He intercepted the British on their way through New Jersey to New York. The battle at Monmouth, however, did not bring success to the Americans, primarily because of the unexpectedly undertaken retreat by General C. Lee, who commanded them, which allowed the British troops to bring up reinforcements and then redeploy their forces to New York State. The Continental Army also proceeded there in July, finally gaining a foothold near the city of New York. The Continental Congress, meanwhile, returned to Philadelphia again.

The entry of France into the war with England, long-awaited for the Americans, took place on July 10, 1778, and the very next day the French squadron, consisting of 17 warships, stood in the roadstead of the New York port. Landing ashore in this region and the beginning of joint military operations with the Americans against the British in New York, however, presented such great difficulties that it was decided to redeploy the squadron to the Newport area in Rhode Island. But here the elements intervened, and on August 11, battered by a severe storm, the French ships were forced to sail to Boston, and then to the West Indies, without making any significant contribution to the American-French military alliance. At the beginning of the winter of 1778, active hostilities moved to the south, where they continued with varying success and were accompanied by huge losses on both sides.

International diplomacy

Beginning in 1779, the war with the colonies began to be of secondary importance for England. Its political and economic confrontation with France and Spain came to the fore, which led to a military conflict with these countries. In accordance with the agreement concluded between Spain and France as early as 1761, both countries agreed on coordinated actions in case of emergency, and in particular in the event of one of them entering the war. In the context of the entry of France into the war with England, Spain had no choice but to join its ally. In June 1779, Spain also declared war on England, hoping to regain its territories, but, guided by its interests in the southern part of the American continent, did not consider it expedient to enter into a political and military alliance with the Americans at the same time. Spain not only did not consider the Americans its allies, but also resolutely refused to recognize their independence, fearing for the integrity of its territories in America. According to many researchers, Spain would never have entered the war if participation in it did not promise strategic advantages to the Spanish monarchy. In addition to Spain defending its colonies in the New World, the defeat of England could lead to the acquisition by Spain of the neighboring English territories of Gibraltar and Minorca.

The intensity of the military confrontation between England and France and Spain began to gradually move to the West Indies and the south of North America - a region of special interests for both Spain and France. In the absence of quick success in the war with the rebellious colonies, England decided to gain a foothold in the south of the continent and after that, having gained a reliable foothold, move north, ensuring the transfer of control over the conquered territories to political forces that remained loyal to Great Britain. London was convinced that the southerners, who feared Indian raids and riots of black slaves, would prefer the familiar and peace-promising domination of the British crown to threatening dangers.

In August 1779, the Continental Congress confirmed the independence of the United States of America from England and demanded the final withdrawal of its armed forces from American territory with the restoration of unrestricted navigation along the river. Mississippi. In the same month, a devastating blow was dealt to Loyalist forces and the Cayuga and Seneca Indian tribes in New York State, called "retribution for acts of terrorism" against American settlers.

In anticipation of the coming winter of 1779/80, and in view of the need to give a respite to the army, the Congress decided that it was necessary to conclude an honorable peace with England. J. Adams was appointed representative of the congress at the talks. In October 1779, the Americans were defeated at Savannah, and the main forces of General Washington's army began another grueling winter in Morristown (New Jersey). The hardships that befell this section of the Continental Army were worse than at Valley Forge. A soldier's mutiny that broke out during the winter was put down with the help of the Pennsylvania militia, and its instigators were hanged.

1780 began with a serious defeat of the Continental Army, when the Americans surrendered Charleston, having suffered huge losses in manpower. The real prospect of the final defeat of the Americans in the struggle for their independence and the equally real danger of the revival of British power on land and at sea rallied America's European allies. Russia did not remain aloof from the events unfolding in Europe. In February 1780, Catherine I initiated the formation of the League of Armed Neutrality in order to develop a common policy for European countries under the dominant position of the "sea tyrant" of Great Britain. In a declaration addressed to the neutral states of Europe, the Russian empress proposed a list of their rights to trade, which would be based, according to the wording of the American Congress, "on the principles of justice, impartiality and moderation." The proposals of Catherine 11 were approved and taken into account by the majority of the neutral maritime powers of Europe and the US Continental Congress.

In 1781, the Congress decided to send its special envoy, lawyer and diplomat F. Deyna, to St. Petersburg to conduct preliminary negotiations on the prospects for establishing diplomatic relations and signing treaties of friendship and trade between Russia and the United States, as well as to find out the possibility of Russian assistance in war against Great Britain. In the official instructions of the President of the US Continental Congress S. Huntington, Dana was instructed: “Enlist the favorable disposition and obtain the support of Her Imperial Majesty with respect to the sovereignty and independence of the United States, and also lay the foundation for good understanding and friendly relations between the subjects of Her Imperial Majesty and citizens of the United States in the name of mutual benefit of both parties. Dane was also tasked with pushing for the admission of the United States into the League of Neutral States.

Having received information about the impending arrival of Deina in the Russian capital, British Foreign Secretary Stormont brought to the attention of the Russian Foreign Office that he would consider it “an insult to the Empress’s friendly feelings for England” if he suggested that she had even the slightest intention to receive this “newcomer ambassador." According to the British ambassador J. Harris, he received an assurance from the Russian imperial court that the stay of the American envoy in Russia would be "a useless exercise" and that Catherine II "would never agree to listen to proposals coming from the camp of the rebels." Upon Deina's arrival in St. Petersburg in August 1781, Catherine II refused to receive him, demonstrating Russia's unwillingness to establish diplomatic relations with the United States and unwillingness to spoil relations with Great Britain. The credentials issued to Dane by Congress were called into question under the pretext that the date of their signing preceded the recognition of US independence by the English crown. Deina failed to achieve the conclusion of a trade agreement, although the Russian government did not prohibit Russian merchants from trading with the United States.

In May 1783, the American Congress came to the conclusion that the issue of relations with Russia had lost its relevance due to the changed political situation. In August 1783, Deina was recalled from Russia, having spent two years there to no avail. It was clear that the empress had no sympathy for the ideas of the American Revolution and showed no readiness to establish official contacts with the young republic. At the same time, at the beginning of 1781, she rejected the proposal of the English government, favorable to Russia, to transfer the island of Minorca to her on terms that included a promise by Russia to achieve the consent of France and Spain to peace with England without mentioning in the peace treaty “rebellious subjects of His Majesty” (i.e. e. Americans).

In anticipation of the world

In the modern world, the United States of America has a great influence on the entire dynamics of the development of the world community. And it all started with 13 English colonies, the first of which was founded in 1607 at the mouth of the James River in the territory of the future Virginia. Most of the colonists in North America were of English origin, the rest were settlers or descendants from the German states, Denmark, France, Switzerland, and Spain. They went to America for various reasons: in search of wealth, because of religious persecution or disagreement with the law, and most importantly, in the hope of a better future. Most of the colonists were engaged in agriculture. In 1643, the English colonies united to form the New England confederation. The New England colonies were the most developed socio-economically. Farms became widespread, manufactories, the first banks began to appear, trade was actively developing, the center of which was Boston.

Plantations formed the basis of economic life in the southern colonies. Crops grown by planters - cotton, tobacco, rice, etc., were in great demand on the world market. Despite the constant influx of new colonists, labor was scarce. In 1619, a Dutch ship arrived in Virginia, bringing the first batch of slaves from Africa to America. The use of slave labor became widespread. For a hundred years, from 1680 to 1780, about 2 million slaves were taken out of Africa to the North American colonies.

In most colonies, power was held by a governor appointed by the English king. The governors appointed officials of the local administration. The self-governing bodies were colonial assemblies - meetings of full-fledged citizens, whose rights were very limited. The governors had the right to veto the decision of the assembly. However, the assemblies could restrain the arbitrariness of the administration, using the right to approve the budget of the colonies, including the size of the governor's salary.

The colonists sought to be equalized in rights with the inhabitants of the metropolis. The metropolis, represented by the British crown, tried to regulate all aspects of the socio-economic and political development of the colonies, acting solely in its own interests. So, in 1750, a decree appeared that limited metallurgical production in America. In particular, it was forbidden to build rolling mills. The colonies were forbidden to trade with other countries and among themselves; only English merchants could sell goods. In 1765, the "stamp duty law" was adopted, which taxed all trade operations, all transactions, any legal acts. This law caused general indignation of the colonists. A wave of protests swept through all the colonies. The British government was forced to cancel it. In 1767, indirect taxes were introduced. But again, the authorities faced strong resistance from the colonists. In the end, only the tax on tea remained.

The colonial oppression of England, restrictions and repressive measures led to a crisis in relations with the colonies. Among the colonists, the idea arose of a boycott of English goods. In December 1773, the famous "Boston Tea Party" took place. A group of colonists dropped a cargo of English tea into the bottom of Boston Harbor in protest against customs duties that had to be paid. In response, the British Parliament declared a state of emergency in Boston, and a military commandant was appointed to replace the civil governor. The Boston port is closed. Although the repressions were directed against only one colony - Massachusetts, where Boston was located, the inhabitants of the other colonies in them are a threat to themselves. Across the country, bodies began to be created to coordinate the actions of opponents of the English crown - "Correspondent Committees".

In the course of the struggle, the colonists grew a sense of common interests. This was evidence that a new ethnic community was being formed - the Americans. On the eve of the war of independence, anti-colonial ideology was strongly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment.

In 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, at which the "Declaration of Rights" was adopted. The document contained a provision that henceforth all laws relating to life in the colonies were made by representatives of the colonists themselves. Congress also decided to create an army under the command of J. Washington (1732-1799).

IN April 1775 there was the first armed clash between the British troops and the troops of the colonists. This event is considered the beginning of the war for the independence of the North American colonies. The war is over September 3, 1783 the signing of a peace treaty at Versailles, according to which Great Britain recognized the independence of its former colonies.

During the course of the war July 4, 1776 II Continental Congress adopted Declaration of Independence. By this document, the colonies were proclaimed free and independent states, united in the United States of America. The Declaration of Independence has become one of the most famous documents of modern times. It had a huge impact on the further development of political thought not only in America, but also in other countries, and has not lost its relevance to the present. The author of the Declaration was Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), a student and follower of the French Enlightenment.

The starting point of the Declaration of Independence was the provision on the natural rights of man. Jefferson proceeded from the fact that all people are born equal and should have equal rights (life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness). The next fundamental point is the provision on popular sovereignty, according to which the source of power is the people. Power can be legitimate only if an agreement is concluded between the government and society. If the government does not want to conclude a social contract or violates it, the people have the right to revolt.

The victory of the colonists in the war of independence was greatly facilitated by the support of a number of European countries. So, on the side of the United States were France and Russia. Catherine II refused King George III of England's request to send Russian troops to America to suppress the rebels, and later proclaimed a declaration of "armed neutrality", which limited the actions of the British fleet. The financial assistance that the Americans received from their allies amounted to 2.5 billion dollars, while they themselves spent 1 billion dollars on the struggle for independence.

Initially, the state structure of the United States was a confederation, but adopted in 1787 at the All-State Convention Constitution proclaimed the United States a federal state. The USA became the first democratic republic. Under the Constitution, the supreme legislative power was vested in the Congress, and the supreme executive power was vested in the president. Congress consisted of two chambers - the Senate (each state elected two senators for a term of six years) and the House of Representatives (representation from each state in proportion to population). The president had the power to veto the decisions of Congress. Elected for a term of four years. George Washington became the first president of the United States in the elections held in 1789.

The constitution of 1787 proceeded from the principle of separation of powers. Judicial power was in the competence of the Supreme Federal Court.

In 1791, the Bill of Rights passed by Congress came into effect, containing ten amendments to the Constitution. These amendments proclaimed freedom of religion, speech and press, freedom of assembly, the right to keep and bear arms, the inviolability of the person and home, fair justice and the introduction of a jury trial. While introducing the foundations of bourgeois democracy, the Bill of Rights did not abolish the system of slavery.

By the end of the XVIII century. the new state was distinguished by a combination of such fundamental foundations as messianism (confidence in the chosen fate of Americans), rationalism (the ability to realistically and concretely resolve emerging issues), democracy (the active participation of the people in organizing their lives). It was these principles that determined the progressive superiority of the United States over Europe, and subsequently the desire to establish US hegemony over the whole world.