Principles and methods of analysis. Methodology and methodology of scientific research Towards the methodology of analysis and measurement

An information tool for characterizing the economy of a commercial enterprise is accounting and management accounting, and a tool for studying the life of an enterprise is analysis, which allows to correctly determine the state of the enterprise and its development and make the most rational decisions in the face of constantly changing events.

With the help of economic analysis, real reality is studied - facts and processes, i.e. primary material to be examined. However, facts by themselves sometimes explain little. Therefore, the task of economic research is not only to register them, but also to reveal the essence of phenomena, the connection between them, to know the reasons for their occurrence, development trends. Penetration into the essence of the studied economic phenomena is possible only through the use of scientific research methods.

Methodology - an important element of theory, a generalization of research methods used in any science. Theory - a system of generalized reliable knowledge about a particular "fragment" of reality, which describes, explains and predicts the functioning of its constituent objects. Practice is a criterion for the correctness and reliability of a theory. Each science, in addition to a specific subject and object of study, has its own method as a general approach to research, a way of research, a way to achieve a goal, a set of methods for studying reality. The term "method" has received a double meaning in science: method as a general approach in research and method as a method for solving a specific problem. The method as a general approach is concretized in methodology as a set of techniques (methods) for solving problems.

Methodology (it can be called a philosophy of methodology) economic analysis consists of a method as a general approach to research and a specific methodology as a set of special techniques (methods) used to process and analyze economic information.

The method of economic analysis - as a general approach to research - is based on dialectics. The basic principles of the method of economic analysis reflect, for example, the following main features of dialectics:

unity of analysis and synthesis. The studied economic phenomena have a set of features and properties. To understand this phenomenon correctly, it is necessary to divide it into the simplest constituent elements, to study each element in detail, to reveal its role and meaning within a single whole, i.e. conduct analysis. After knowing the nature of each of the constituent elements, clarifying their role and significance within a given whole phenomenon, it is necessary to combine these elements again in accordance with their role and purpose into a single whole, i.e. execute synthesis, which allows you to formulate a diagnosis and evaluate the phenomenon as a whole. As already mentioned, analysis and synthesis are two sides of a single process of cognition of phenomena;
study of economic phenomena in their relationship. All phenomena of economic life are not only closely related, but also influence each other in a certain way; there is a causal relationship between many of them: one is the cause of the other. For example, between the most important indicators of economic activity - the volume of production and the cost of production - there is a direct interaction: an increase in production leads to a decrease in production costs due to the so-called fixed costs, which do not increase with an increase in output; reducing the cost, in turn, allows you to produce more products with available resources.

Interrelation and interdependence necessitate an integrated approach to the study of economic activity. The concept of complexity covers the complex study of both all indicators in their connection and interdependence, and all aspects of economic activity, i.e. economy, organization, technology and technology, social conditions and environmental management, because only a comprehensive study makes it possible to correctly assess the results of work, to reveal deep reserves in the economy of enterprises;

study of economic phenomena in development. The number of sales of products for a year at some enterprise in itself means little, especially if the sales volume is given in abstract value terms. If, next to this figure, put others, showing the sale of products for previous years, as well as those provided for in the plan for future years, then the figure will "speak". That is why it is necessary to study the indicators of the economy not only statically, but also in dynamics, being able to judge the speed of economic development.

Enterprise development is not just a quantitative increase in production. Production grows and develops in an ascending order - from simple to complex, from the lowest level to the highest, from the old quality state to the new. Behind a number of increasing sales figures, one must see a radical change in production technology and technology, organizational and economic improvement of the enterprise.

The study of economic phenomena in development necessitates the use of such an analytical technique as comparison. It is possible to give a correct assessment of the activities of an enterprise only by comparing its indicators in time (months, years, etc.) and space (with the average industry level, with indicators of similar enterprises).

So, the method of economic analysis as a general approach to the study of economic processes is based on materialistic dialectics. The peculiarities of the method of economic analysis are the use of a system of indicators and factors of economic activity, the choice of indicators and assessments depending on the characteristics of the analyzed phenomena, the study of the reasons for the change in indicators and the identification of the influence of factors on the effective indicator using the techniques of mathematics, statistics and economic accounting.

Scientific research can be defined as purposeful cognition. To conduct research means to study, to learn patterns, systematizing facts.

Scientific research has a number of distinctive features: the presence of a clear formulated goal; striving to discover the unknown; systematic process and results; substantiation and verification of the conclusions and generalizations obtained.

It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and everyday knowledge. Scientific knowledge, in contrast to ordinary knowledge, involves the use of special research methods. In this regard, it becomes necessary to constantly search for new methods for studying unexplored objects.

What are research methods

Research methods are ways to achieve a goal in scientific work. The science that studies these methods is called Methodology.

Any human activity depends not only on the object (what it is aimed at) and the actor (subject), but also on how it is carried out, what means and methods are used. This is the essence of the method.

Translated from Greek, "method" means "a way of knowing." A correctly chosen method contributes to a faster and more accurate achievement of the goal, serves as a special compass that helps the researcher to avoid most mistakes while paving his way.

Difference of the method from the methodology and methodology

Confusion often occurs in terms of method and technique. A technique is a system of cognition methods. For example, when conducting a sociological research, quantitative and qualitative methods can be combined. The whole set of these methods will represent a research methodology.

The concept of a technique is close in meaning to a research procedure, its sequence, and an algorithm. Without a high-quality technique, even a correctly selected method will not give a good result.

If a methodology is a way of implementing a method, then a methodology is a teaching about methods. In a broad sense, the methodology is

Classification of scientific research methods

All methods of scientific research are divided into several levels.

Philosophical methods

The most famous among them are the most ancient methods: dialectical and metaphysical. In addition to them, the philosophical methods include phenomenological, hermeneutic, intuitive, analytical, eclectic, dogmatic, sophistic and others.

General scientific methods

The analysis of the process of cognition makes it possible to single out the methods on which not only scientific, but also any everyday human cognition is built. These include theoretical level methods:

Analysis - the dismemberment of a single whole into separate parts, sides and properties for their further detailed study.
Synthesis is the connection of separate parts into a single whole.
Abstraction - mental highlighting of any essential properties of the object under consideration, while abstraction from a number of other inherent features.
Generalization is the establishment of the unifying properties of objects.
Induction is a way of constructing a general conclusion based on known individual facts.

Examples of research methods

For example, studying the properties of certain liquids, they reveal that they have the property of elasticity. Based on the fact that water and alcohol are liquids, it is concluded that all liquids have the property of elasticity.

Deduction - a way to build a private conclusion, based on a general judgment.

For example, two facts are known: 1) all metals have the property of electrical conductivity; 2) copper - metal. It can be concluded that copper has the property of electrical conductivity.

Analogy - such a method of cognition, in which knowledge of a number of common features for objects allows us to conclude about their similarity and other features.

For example, science knows that light has properties such as interference and diffraction. In addition, it was previously found that sound has the same properties and this is due to its wave nature. On the basis of this analogy, a conclusion was made about the wave nature of light (by analogy with sound).

Modeling - creation of a model (copy) of the object of study for the purpose of its research.

In addition to the methods of the theoretical level, methods of the empirical level are distinguished.

Classification of general scientific methods

Empirical level methods

Method	Definition	Example
Observation	Research based on the senses; perception of phenomena	In order to study one of the stages of development of children, Piaget observed the manipulative games of children with certain toys. On the basis of observation, he concluded that the child's ability to form objects into each other arises later than the motor skills necessary for this.
Description	Recording information	The anthropologist writes down all the facts about the life of the tribe, without exerting any influence on him
Measurement	Comparison based on common features	Determination of body temperature using a thermometer; weight determination by balancing weights on a beam scale; determining distance using radar
Experiment	Observational research in a specially designed environment	On a busy city street, groups of people in various numbers (2,3,4,5,6, etc. people) stopped and looked up. Passers-by stopped nearby and also began to look up. It turned out that the percentage of those who joined increased significantly when reaching the experimental group of 5 people.
Comparison	Research based on the study of the similarities and differences of objects; juxtaposition of one subject with another	Comparison of economic indicators of the base year with the previous year, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about economic trends

Theoretical level methods

Method	Definition	Example
Formalization	Disclosure of the essence of processes due to their display in a symbolic form	Flight simulation based on knowledge of the basic characteristics of the aircraft
Axiomatization	Application of axioms for building theories	Euclid's geometry
Hypothetical-deductive	Creation of a system of hypotheses and derivation of these conclusions	The discovery of the planet Neptune was based on several hypotheses. As a result of their analysis, it was concluded that Uranus is not the last planet in the solar system. The theoretical justification for finding a new planet in a certain place was then confirmed empirically

Specific scientific (special) methods

In any scientific discipline, a set of certain methods is applied, referring to different "levels" of methodology. Tying a particular method to a particular discipline is difficult. However, each discipline relies on a number of methods. Here are some of them.

Biology:

genealogical - the study of heredity, the compilation of genealogies;
historical - determining the relationship between phenomena that have taken place over a long time (billions of years);
biochemical - the study of the chemical processes of the body, etc.

Jurisprudence:

historical and legal - obtaining knowledge about legal practice, legislation in different periods of time;
comparative legal - search and study of similarities and differences between the state and legal institutions of countries;
legal sociological method - a study of reality in the field of state and law using questionnaires, polls, etc.

In medicine, there are three main groups of methods for studying the body:

laboratory diagnostics - the study of the properties and composition of biological fluids;
functional diagnostics - examination of organs by their manifestations (mechanical, electrical, sound);
structural diagnostics - identification of changes in the structure of the body.

Economy:

economic analysis - the study of the constituent parts of the studied whole;
statistical and economic method - analysis and processing of statistical indicators;
sociological method - questioning, polling, interviewing, etc.
computational and constructive, economic modeling, etc.

Psychology:

method of experiment - the creation of such circumstances that provoke the manifestation of any mental phenomenon;
method of observation - by means of organized perception of a phenomenon, a mental phenomenon is explained;
biographical method, comparative genetic method, etc.

Analyzing empirical research data

Empirical research is aimed at obtaining empirical data - data obtained through experience, practice.

The analysis of such data occurs in several stages:

Description of the data. At this stage, summarized results are described using indicators and graphs.
Comparison. The similarities and differences of the two samples are identified.
Exploring dependencies. Determination of interdependencies (correlation, regression analysis).
Decrease in volume. Studying all the variables, if there are a large number of them, identifying the most informative ones.
Grouping.

The results of any research conducted - analysis and interpretation of data - are drawn up on paper. The range of such research papers is quite wide: tests, abstracts, reports, term papers, theses, theses, dissertations, monographs, textbooks, etc. Only after a comprehensive study and assessment of the findings, the research results are used in practice.

Instead of a conclusion

AM Novikov and DA Novikova in the book "" in the methods of theoretical and empirical research also distinguishes methods-operations (a way to achieve a goal) and methods-actions (solving a specific problem). This concretization is not accidental. A more rigid systematization of scientific knowledge increases its effectiveness.

Research methods as they are updated: February 15, 2019 by the author: Scientific Articles.Ru

METHODOLOGY OF SOCIOLOGY

methodos- ■ - ■ the path of knowledge and logos

1. Philosophical methodology

2. General scientific methodology,

ontos- being, existence and logos

etc.

FUNCTIONS OF THE METHODOLOGY

and self-critical.

about scientific practice

E. DURKHEIM

Durkheim assumed that social reality is as stable as other realities. Durkheim believes that society is a reality of a special kind, not reducible to other realities. He strongly opposes methodological reductionism,t. s. a methodological setting that allows the possibility of explaining certain types of reality, some phenomena with the help of patterns and properties inherent in other types of realities, or other phenomena. He considers it necessary to distinguish between individual facts and social facts, individual perceptions and collective perceptions, individual consciousness and collective consciousness. Durkheim believes that social reality in relation to individuals acts as a coercive force. Social reality is also characterized by external existence in relation to individuals. This reality is extra- and supra-individual.

From these ontological concepts, Durkheim derived the rules of the sociological method and substantiated the logic of sociological research. According to Durkheim, social cognition is not fundamentally different from the study of non-social realities. Methodologically, sociology should be similar to the sciences of nature. The main task of a sociologist is to study the causal relationships that exist in social reality, and to establish objective laws that govern the development of social reality. The sociologist must use objective methods,which have proven their effectiveness in the study of natural reality.

The basic principle of social cognition, according to Durkheim: sociology must study social facts as things.At the same time, study nsobho-

dimo ns notions of reality, but its itself. For sociology to acquire the status of an independent science, it must decisively get rid of proto-concepts (non-concepts), i.e., concepts borrowed from common sense and other forms of social consciousness. Durkheim believes that the right to an independent existence of sociology can be justified by the characteristics of the originality of social reality, the object and subject of social science, which are different from other sciences. Durkheim sees in sociology the science of sciences. He believed that sociology should emancipate itself from philosophy. According to Durkheim, sociological explanations are the only correct explanations for social phenomena.

HISTORICAL APPROACH

For the above reasons, it is preferable to speak of a historical approach rather than a method. Let's define the ontological basis of the historical approach.

1. The existence and development of social reality in space and time.

2. The constancy of changes in social reality.

3. Conditionality of social changes by a complex interaction of objective and subjective factors.

The historical approach requires the study of social reality as changing in time and space, as a process that is subject to objective laws. The historical approach arose in modern times (XV1I-XVIII centuries) and was developed by representatives of French philosophical and historical thought, as well as representatives of German classical idealism (G. Vico, Voltaire, G. Herder, J.-J. Rousseau, D. . Diderot, I. Fichte and G.V.F. Hegel).

A detailed justification of the need to use a historical approach was carried out within the framework of the so-called philosophy of history in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries. The historical approach was a reaction to the shortcomings inherent in the vast majority of historical and socio-philosophical works in the past:

Providencealism is a pre-established development of history in accordance with divine will.

From the point of view of representatives of the philosophy of history, society must be understood as a part and continuation of nature. Social phenomena in their development are subject to natural laws. In general i all, specific social causality should be identified. The historical process presupposes its own unity. One of the main features of the historical approach is the approval of the idea of \u200b\u200bsocial progress. Social phenomena develop according to objective laws, from lower forms to higher ones.

German classical idealism brought new aspects to the methodology of social cognition, the foundations of which were laid by representatives of the philosophy of history. Hegel argued that historical development is subject, first of all, to internal laws inherent in history itself and individual social phenomena. Development is not changes artificially brought from the outside, but the objective necessity of the existence of history and all social phenomena.

In essence, the historical approach is a form of organization of the cognitive process, in the course of which the study of a social phenomenon is carried out by means of reproducing its causally conditioned and natural formation and development. The historical approach must be addressed when there is a need to explain the presence of properties inherent in a given phenomenon at a given time, when determining the historical place and role of a given phenomenon and to understand the past through the present. Using a historical approach, researchers answer the question: how did the phenomenon arise, what

stages passed in development, what are the reasons for the transition of this phenomenon from one state to another and what did this phenomenon become at the next stage of its development?

The historical approach must be based on a dialectical approach. The historical approach involves the analysis of qualitative changes in the structure of the phenomenon and the analysis of the development of this phenomenon in the form of its self-movement, that is, through the analysis of the unity and struggle of opposites that are characteristic of this phenomenon. When using a historical approach, two extremes should be avoided: archaization and modernization.

Archaization is a way of considering a phenomenon, in which categories reflecting the properties that the phenomenon possessed in the past are used to explain the properties inherent in a given phenomenon in modern times. Modernization is a way of considering social phenomena, in which forms of describing the current state of a social phenomenon are used to explain the same phenomenon at an early stage of its existence.

Fig. five.Cognitive situation in a comprehensive study.

NIPR - unified initial ideas about the essence of the object and the subject of research. SOMP is a systemically organized interdisciplinary subject of research, EIZn is a single integrated knowledge.

In a comprehensive study, such ideas about the subject are developed, which include knowledge of various sciences. All scientists participating in the research rethink this knowledge in order to build a system-organized interdisciplinary subject.

3. The principle of mobilizing relevant knowledge,requiring researchers to conduct a retrospective analysis of the structure and content of existing knowledge about the object and the choice of what is directly related to the study of this object.

4. Basic discipline principlerequires that within the framework of research be determined the main science, which contains the most general idea of \u200b\u200bthe object under study, reveals the essence of the object. As a rule, in complex social research, sociology serves as the basic discipline acting as the organizer of interdisciplinary interaction. However, other disciplines can also be the basic discipline, which is determined by the objectives of the study.

5. The principle of systemic organizationthe subject of research means that the subject of research should be built not as a random collection of knowledge borrowed from different disciplines, but as a new composition of already acquired knowledge,bringing new qualities to the understanding of the subject of research.

6. The congruence principle,compatibility of knowledge suggests that comprehensive research should involve knowledge that is combined, complement each other, and knowledge that does not correspond to uniform ideas should be discarded, although one should not forget about their existence. Sometimes this knowledge should be returned.

7. The principle of the unity of the cognitive processand the unanimity of the participants in a particular study is revealed using two other principles: the principle of the unity of the research goal, which is broken down into a variety of cognitive tasks, consistent with each other, and the principle of the unity of the conceptual design.

8. Integration principle of partial resultsinto a single integral result requires synthesizing individual results into a consistent structure that gives an integral characteristic of the studied phenomenon.

From the principles formulated it follows that there can be no comprehensive sociological research, but there can be a comprehensive social research, in which sociology, as a rule, takes the leading place in the basic discipline, since only sociology offers the most general ideas about all social phenomena.

Comprehensive social research is carried out in four main forms.

1. Comprehensive interdisciplinary research in which two disciplines are sufficient.

2. Comprehensive interdisciplinary research, including specific areas of social and humanitarian disciplines, as well as disciplines of other ranks, for example, complex socio-biological research.

3. Interdisciplinary complex terminal programs (temporary), as a rule, including a complex of socio-humanitarian and other sciences.

4. Interdisciplinary programs-hospitals, which are of a permanent nature, which are created for the purpose of long-term study of complex objects, a large number of different disciplines are involved in them.

On the purpose of the course "Methodology of Sociology" ........................................... ....five

\ iMethodology of Sociology ................................................ ...................................... 6

\\ / Functions of the methodology .............................................. ............................................. 7

Types of methodological analysis ............................................... .........................8

atSociological realism and sociological nominalism ............................ 9

e. Durkheim's Ontological and Methodological Concepts ............. 10

Ontological and sociocultural conditioning

sociological knowledge ................................................ ...........................eleven

Basic ideas about the specifics of sociological methodology ......... 13

The main paradigms of the development of sociological knowledge .............................. 14

v The structure of sociological knowledge .............................................. ...................sixteen

Theoretical research and forms of theorizing ............................... 1 8

Empirical research and the structure of empirical knowledge .................. 20

Dialectical approach in sociology .............................................. ................. 2 1

Historical approach................................................ .......................................... 23

Criticism of Historicism by K. Ponpsrom ............................................. ...................... 25

Comparative Approach and Comparative Social Research ............. 25

Systemic and integrated approaches .............................................. ................... 29,

Methodological guidelines for structural and functional analysis ........... 35 j

Humanitarian and personal paradigm .............................................. ................... 40 f

The main features of sociological thinking .............................................. ... Al.

y / The ratio of sensual and rational

in sociological knowledge ............................................... .......................... 48

v The structure and integrity of sociological knowledge .................................... 50

Organization of sociological research ............................................... ..52

V The logic of sociological research .............................................. ............. 53

Literature

METHODOLOGY OF SOCIOLOGY

The concept of "methodology" is derived from the Greek words methodos- ■ - ■ the path of knowledge and logos----- word, thought. Methodology - teaching about the ways of scientific research. However, the content of the methodology is broader. It includes a statement of the basic principles, ontological premises, approaches, methods that substantiate and explain the methods of obtaining scientific knowledge, its increment, development and application.

Several levels of methodology are distinguished.

1. Philosophical methodologystudies the most general laws of the development of human thinking, cognition, including scientific cognition. Philosophical methodology basically coincides with epistemology. Epistemology focuses on the analysis of knowledge. The methodology focuses on the procedural characteristics of the cognitive process.

2. General scientific methodology,which examines the fundamental approaches and methods of knowledge found in all sciences.

3. Special scientific methodology,that is, the methodology of specific sciences: biology, physics, history, sociology, etc. Special scientific methodology has been developed and concretized in the methodology and technique of scientific research, characteristic of a particular scientific discipline.

Sociological methodology is the doctrine of a system of ontological premises, principles, approaches, methods that explain the structure of sociological knowledge, methods of obtaining it, its increment, development and application. It is a way of self-awareness of sociology as a science, it is a special type of reflection on the essence, purpose, possibilities and boundaries of scientific sociological knowledge.

The need to distinguish methodological analysis in a special area of \u200b\u200bscientific activity is a general pattern of development of all types of human activity, including scientific. The more complex scientific activity, the more acute the need for its analysis.

Initially, methodological developments in sociology were carried out within the framework of the development of sociological theories, within the framework of substantiating the object and subject of sociological theories. Among the classics of sociological thought, except for E. Durkheim. no special works on analysis) 1 methodological problems. Sociological methodology as a special area of \u200b\u200bsociological knowledge began to form already in the XX century. And by the middle of the century, various directions had developed in sociological methodology. They differed in the ontological foundations of sociological research, in the approach that was used in them, in

methods that became the subject of sociological methodology itself.

The specificity of the methodology and all directions is determined by how the sociologist defines ontology, that is, the forms of existence of social reality. Ontology is the starting point for the formation of sociological methods and sociological knowledge.

The concept of "ontology" is derived from two Greek words: ontos- being, existence and logos- word. Ontology is a teaching about being, about the form of existence of certain phenomena.

I The structure of sociological methodology consists of seven main "(Sections.

1. Ontological and epistemological foundations and prerequisites for sociological knowledge.

2. The principles of sociological knowledge.

3. The main ways of understanding and explaining social reality, ie, the main paradigms of the development of sociological knowledge.

4. The main approaches and methods used in sociological knowledge.

5. The structure of sociological knowledge, types of sociological knowledge.

6. The logic of sociological research, the sequence and interconnection of procedures for obtaining social knowledge.

7. Problems of using knowledge in public practice.

There are three groups of understand_mstodology. I. Concepts fixing the results of cognitive activity - idea, concept, hypothesis, theory, factetc. 2. Concepts fixing the initial preconditions of consciousness of the cognizing subject. - picture of the world, image of social reality, ontological ideas, - approachetc. 3. Concepts describing the cognitive activity of a researcher, its individual aspects - paradigm, method, experimentetc.

FUNCTIONS OF THE METHODOLOGY

Methodology exists not only as an abstract area of \u200b\u200breflection of scientific activity, "but also as an area that sets the rules for organizing activities, designed to analyze existing and future practice. Methodology ■ is an assistant to the sociologist who performs the tasks of clearing the debris on the way to objective scientific knowledge. Sociological methodology has several functions: descriptive, explanatory, predictive, control, criticaland self-critical.These functions express the practical orientation of sociological methodology.

Methodology collects, organizes, catalogs information

about scientific practice

x. She also considers it her task to understand and explain

thread, why and in what conditions sociolyugs used these or those cognitive means. She explains how to use cognitive tools in research activities. The methodology, based on the analysis of the past and the present in sociology, determines promising ways to effectively use the entire gamut of cognitive means available to modern sociology. The methodology exercises methodological control over the organization of the cognitive process, including from the point of view of how correctly cognitive means are used in it and how fully and holistically one or another object is studied. Using methodological knowledge, each sociologist can exercise control over his own cognitive activities and the activities of his predecessors and contemporaries. Reflecting on the implementation of scientific research, the methodology analyzes cognitive actions, evaluates their correctness, identifies shortcomings, problems and difficulties in the cognitive process, develops recommendations for its improvement, establishes the shorms and rules of scientific activity.

TYPES OF METHODOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Methodology as a general doctrine of the way of\u003e x knowledge implements its functions in several types of methodological analysis.

1. Analysis of ontological ideas about social reality and the epistemological foundations arising from them.

2. Analysis of the principles of cognition, the main of which are objectivity, comprehensiveness, causality, historicism, development, consistency, complexity.

3. Analysis of approaches and methods that are used in the practice of sociological research.

4. Analysis of the applicability in sociological research of general scientific methods and concepts (thing, property, attitude, etc.).

5. Analysis of certain concepts, specific for the subject area of \u200b\u200bsociology, theoretical schemes and wrist theories, as well as facts.

6. Logic of scientific research, analysis of the cognitive process.

7. Analysis of the relations of researchers in the organization of collective scientific research.

8. Analysis of the types of relations between the sociologist and various types of social practice.

In or among other factors, it is necessary to list research methods... Choosing suitable methods, applying them in the process of writing a work and correctly describing them in the introduction is not an easy task. It is further complicated by the fact that in each area of \u200b\u200bresearch: psychology, medicine, finance, pedagogy and others, their own narrowly focused methods are applied. Below we will reveal their essence and call their general and special types.

What are research methods?

This is the first question to be sorted out. So, research methods are the steps that we take on the way to our work. These are the ways that help us to solve the assigned tasks.

Due to their huge number, there are different classification of research methods, division into types, grouping. First of all, they are usually divided into two categories: universal and private. The first category is applicable to all branches of knowledge, and the second has a narrower focus and covers those methods that are applied strictly in a particular area of \u200b\u200bscience.

Let us consider the following classification in more detail and highlight their types: empirical, theoretical, quantitative and qualitative. Next, we will consider the methods applicable in specific areas of knowledge: pedagogy, psychology, sociology, and others.

Empirical research methods

This view is based on empirical, that is, sensory perception, as well as on measurement with instruments. It is an important component of scientific research in all fields of knowledge from biology to physics, from psychology to pedagogy. It helps to determine the objective laws in accordance with which the studied phenomena occur.

The empirical research methods given below in term paper and other student works can be called basic or universal, because they are relevant for absolutely all areas of knowledge.

Study of a variety of sources of information. This is nothing more than an elementary collection of information, that is, the stage of preparation for or course work. The information you will rely on can be taken from books, the press, regulations and, finally, from the Internet. When looking for information, it should be remembered that not all finds are reliable (especially on the Internet), therefore, when sampling information, you should take them critically and pay attention to the confirmation and similarity of materials from different sources.
Analysis of the information received. This is the stage that follows the collection of information. It is not enough just to find the necessary material, you also need to carefully analyze it, check for consistency, reliability, etc.
Observation. This method is a purposeful and attentive perception of the studied phenomenon with the subsequent collection of information. In order for the observation to bring the desired results, it is necessary to prepare for it in advance: draw up a plan, outline the factors that require special attention, clearly define the timing and objects of observation, prepare a table that you will fill out in the process.
Experiment. If observation is rather a passive method of research, then the experiment is characterized by your vigorous activity. To conduct an experiment or a series of experiments, you create certain conditions in which you place the subject of research. Next, you observe the reaction of the subject and record the results of the experiments in the form of a table, graph or diagram.
Interview. This method helps to look deeper into the problem being studied by asking specific questions to the people involved. The survey is used in three variations: interview, conversation and questionnaire. The first two types are oral, and the last one is written. After completing the survey, you need to clearly articulate its results in the form of text, diagram, table or graph.

Theoretical research methods

Research methods of this type are abstract and generalized. They help to organize the collected material for its successful study.

Analysis. To better understand the material, it is necessary to decompose it into its constituent units and study each in detail. This is what analysis does.
Synthesis. The opposition to analysis required to bring disparate elements together. We use this method to get a general idea of \u200b\u200bthe phenomenon under study.
Modeling. To study the subject of research in detail, sometimes you need to place it in a specially created model.
Classification. This method is similar to analysis, only it distributes information on the basis of comparison and divides into groups, based on common characteristics.
Deduction. In the best traditions of Sherlock Holmes, this method helps to move from the general to the particular. This transition is useful for a deeper insight into the essence of the phenomenon under study.
Induction. This method is an opposition to deduction, it helps to move from a single case to the study of a whole phenomenon.
Analogy. The principle of its operation lies in the fact that we find certain similarities between several phenomena, and then build logical conclusions that other features of these phenomena may coincide.
Abstraction. If we ignore the striking properties of the phenomenon under study, we can reveal those characteristics that we have not paid attention to until now.

Quantitative research methods

This group of methods helps to analyze phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators.

Statistical methods aim at initially collecting quantitative data and then measuring them in order to investigate large-scale phenomena. The obtained quantitative characteristics help to identify general patterns and eliminate occasional minor deviations.
Bibliometric methods allow you to study the structure, interconnection and dynamics of the development of phenomena in the documentation and information areas. This includes counting the number of publications made, and content analysis, and quotation index, i.e. determination of the volume of citation of various sources. On their basis, it is possible to track the circulation of the studied documents, the degree of their use in various fields of knowledge. Content analysis deserves a special mention, since it plays an important role in the study of a large volume of various documents. Its essence boils down to the calculation of semantic units, which can be certain authors, works, dates of publication of books. The result of research using this method is information about the information interest of the population and the general level of their information culture.

Qualitative research methods

The methods combined in this group are aimed at identifying the qualitative characteristics of the phenomena under study so that, on their basis, we can reveal the deep mechanisms of various processes in society, including the influence of the media on the consciousness of an individual or certain features of the perception of information by various layers of the population. The main area of \u200b\u200bapplication of qualitative methods is marketing and sociological research.

Let's consider the most important methods of this group.

In-depth interview. Unlike an ordinary interview, which belongs to an empirical type, here we are talking about a conversation where a short answer "yes" or "no" is not enough, but detailed, well-reasoned answers are required. Often, in-depth interviews are conducted in the form of a free conversation in an informal setting according to a predetermined plan, and its purpose is to explore the beliefs, values \u200b\u200band motivations of respondents.
Expert interview. This conversation differs from the deep analogue in that the respondent is an expert competent in the area of \u200b\u200binterest. With knowledge of the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study, he expresses a valuable opinion and significantly contributes to scientific research. Often, representatives of the authorities, university workers, heads and employees of organizations participate in conversations of this kind.
Focus group discussions. Here the conversation takes place not one-on-one, but with a focus group consisting of 10-15 respondents who are directly related to the phenomenon under study. During the discussion, its participants share their personal opinion, experience and perception of the proposed topic, and on the basis of their statements, a "portrait" of the social group, to which the focus group belongs, is drawn up.

Pedagogical research methods

In pedagogy, research is carried out using both universal and particular methods necessary for the study of specific pedagogical phenomena, as well as the search for their interconnection and patterns. Theoretical methods help to identify problems and evaluate the collected materials for research, including monographs on pedagogy, historical and pedagogical documents, teaching aids and other documents related to pedagogy. Studying the literature on a chosen topic, we find which problems have already been solved and which have not been sufficiently covered.

In addition to theoretical, pedagogical research also welcomes empirical methods, complementing them with its own specifics. So, observation here becomes a purposeful and attentive perception of pedagogical phenomena (most often these are ordinary or open lessons in schools). Questioning and testing is often applied both to students and to the teaching staff to understand the essence of educational processes.

Among the private methods that relate exclusively to pedagogical research, one should name the study of the results of students' activities (control, independent, creative and graphic works) and the analysis of pedagogical documentation (journals of student progress, their personal files and medical records).

Sociological research methods

Sociological research is based on theoretical and empirical methods, supplemented by the specification of topics. Let us consider how they are transformed in sociology.

Analysis of various sources to obtain the most accurate information. Here books, manuscripts, videos, audio, and statistics are studied. One of the types of this method is content analysis, which transforms the qualitative factors of the studied sources into their quantitative characteristics.
Sociological observation. With the help of this method, sociological data are collected by directly studying the phenomenon in its normal, natural conditions. Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be controlled or uncontrolled, laboratory or field, included or not included.
Questioning, which in this area turns into a sociological survey. The respondents are invited to fill out a questionnaire, on the basis of which the researcher subsequently receives an array of social information.
Interview, that is, an oral sociological survey. During a direct conversation between the researcher and the respondent, personal psychological relationships are established, which contribute not only to obtaining answers to the questions posed, but also to the study of the respondents' emotional reactions to them.
A social experiment is the study of a particular social process in artificial conditions. It is carried out to test the hypothesis put forward and test ways to control the associated processes.

Psychological research methods

Research methods in psychology - these are general scientific empirical and theoretical, as well as private, narrowly focused. Most of the research here is based on modified observation and experiment.

Observation in psychology is the study of mental activity by registering the physiological processes and behavioral acts of interest. This oldest method is most effective in the first steps to the study of the problem, as it helps to pre-determine the important factors of the studied processes. Peculiarities of human behavior, including verbal (content, duration, frequency of speech acts) and non-verbal (expression of the face and body, gestures), can become the subject of observation in psychology.

Observation is distinguished by a certain passivity of the researcher, and this is not always convenient. Therefore, for a more intensive and in-depth study of the mental processes of interest, an experiment is used, which in a psychological context is a joint activity of the researcher and the subject (or several subjects). The experimenter artificially creates the necessary conditions against which, in his opinion, the phenomena under study will manifest themselves as clearly as possible. If observation is a passive method of research, then experiment is an active one, because the researcher actively interferes in the course of the research, changes the conditions of its conduct.

So, we looked at various research methods that are worthy not only of mention in or, but also of active application in practice.

The calculation methodology is built in accordance with a hierarchical top-down analysis scheme. The basis of vertical factor analysis is the consolidated report on the financial results of the enterprise (the output form of the operating budget - see Table 46), detailed (disaggregated) by. The analysis is multilevel, that is, it is carried out in several stages.

Analysis of the methodology used in countries with a developed market infrastructure allows us to conclude that the basis of the enterprise management system as a subject of market economy is the strategy of directing capital investments to achieve competitive advantages.

Adamov V.E. Factor index analysis (methodology and problems). - M.

The organization shall review the design and / or development outputs and the process to meet the needs and expectations of interested parties. It is necessary to ensure that this data is in accordance with the project specifications, validated and meets customer needs. Adequate data should be obtained through validation and validation of activities to analyze the methodologies and decision-making process for the project and / or development. The review of methodologies should include opportunities for process and product improvement, actions to investigate failures, and future needs that may arise during the design and / or development process.

Analysis of the methodology of foreign experience in labor rationing allows us to draw the following conclusions

For the convenience of analysis, methodology for developing management efficiency, a classification of innovative projects according to various criteria is proposed (Figure 7.1).

An analysis of Karl Marx's methodology would be incomplete without characterizing the factors of production. Marxism and Western thought have practically no differences over the composition of the factors of production. A significant difference lies in the interpretation of the role of factors in the production process. K. Marx proceeded from the special role of hired labor. Only the labor of a hired worker was declared productive, and it was he who served as the only source of

Microeconomics studies the economic reality based on the methodology of cognition and specific research methods. Methodology is a teaching about the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. The specific methodology depends on the specifics of the research object, as well as on the ideological positions of the research. The methodology should always precede individual or group research techniques, i.e. research methods. A logical approach should not be confused with analysis tools. Methodology and methods form successive stages of economic

How he did it A close examination of the methodology that Bill Gates uses in running his company reveals ten secret factors of his success. For those who would like to follow in his footsteps, we present them here.

Due to the fact that the curriculum of this specialty provides for a number of economic and economic management courses, the basics of accounting and finance, technical and economic analysis of production and economic "] activities, scientific organization and labor rationing, theory of production management, automated control systems in the chemical industry and other, some issues (for example, labor organization and rationing, financial planning) are not included at all in the textbook to avoid duplication. Some of the issues are raised only to the extent necessary to characterize their connection with the problems presented in other courses (theory and methodology for determining the economic efficiency of new technology and capital investments, production management theory, etc.) or get acquainted with them only in general terms (application of the theory of reliability to production management, etc.).

It seems to us that the wonders and paradoxes of Japanese governance are the product of the paradoxes of the methodology of go research. Let us point out two of the most striking such paradoxes. The first is that Japanese governance is viewed in the same way as Western governance, without presupposing or deeply analyzing the essential differences in these phenomena. In reality, however, Japanese government has a number of essential differences from Western government, which allow us to conclude that this is a special type of government. And since this is a special type of management, then it must be studied on the basis of its essential characteristics as a whole, and not by analyzing its individual elements. For example, life-long employment, no matter how you study it in isolation from the management system as a whole, will always require references to either miracles or paradoxes. The second is what the Japanese government is trying to describe in the same terms as Western (accordingly, Japanese government is reduced to the same elements as Western). But the content of the manifestations of Japanese governance hidden behind these concepts is different from that of the West.

This course includes two types of lessons, lectures and practical exercises. Lectures form the necessary theoretical base for students, introduce them to the methodology of forming and analyzing the assortment.

An equally important factor in making the right decisions on prices is the availability of reliable information and a comprehensive analysis of the price situation in the market. To solve these problems, knowledge of the methodology for collecting, processing and analyzing data characterizing prices, the processes of their formation and changes is required. Poorly collected and processed price information invalidates any marketing decision. Therefore, familiarizing students with the analytical component of price marketing is also an important objective of the course.

Analysis of the existing methodology for standardization of materials and equipment and directions for its improvement

The basis for the development of a methodology for constructing a system of standardization of material and technical resources in the gas industry is the formula of K. Marx, which characterizes the formation of a product of production .... The process fades away in the product, and the consequences of its in-depth analysis. The basis of any process - action is the use of a useful energy effect (Fig. 7).

The basis of the economic methodology is a broad systematic approach to the analysis and planning of enterprise activities. This means that an enterprise is considered as a part ("element") of some higher-level system (joint stock company, regional market for products and resources, the country's fuel and energy complex, regional natural environment, etc.). It is possible to correctly understand and evaluate the effective directions of development and the chances of an enterprise only through a thorough analysis of its connections with this "external environment" and its other elements.

In accordance with the methodology for controlling overhead costs adopted in our country, an estimate of costs is made for each of these items. These estimates do not provide for the delineation of costs for variables and fixed ones, which complicates their analysis and planning.

Analysis of the methodology for the design, refinement and production of aircraft engines made it possible to propose methods for increasing its efficiency based on a systematic approach and automation, as well as to obtain IDEF-models that are used as the basis for a system automation project.

In full measure, a similar methodology for a comprehensive system analysis of the problems of a territory with a high anthropogenic load was implemented in the Sverdlovsk Region and the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Institute of Industrial Ecology) during the implementation of "