Austria-Hungary (German: Österreich-Ungarn, officially from November 14, 1868 - German: Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der heiligen ungarischen Stephanskrone (Kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrat, and lands of the Hungarian crown of St. Stephen), unofficial full name - German Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy), Hungarian Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia, Czech Rakousko-Uhersko) - a dual monarchy and multinational state in Central Europe that existed in 1867-1918. The third largest state in Europe of its time, after the British and Russian empires, and the first to be located entirely in Europe.

Military map of the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1882-1883. (1:200,000) - 958mb

Description of the card:

Military maps of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary

Year of manufacture: late 19th, early 20th centuries
Publisher: Geographical Department of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff
Format: scans jpg 220dpi
Scale: 1:200,000

Description:
265 sheets
Map coverage from Strasbourg to Kyiv

Story

Austria-Hungary appeared in 1867 as a result of a bilateral agreement that reformed the Austrian Empire (which, in turn, was created in 1804). In foreign policy, Austria-Hungary was part of the Alliance of Three Emperors with Germany and Russia, then the Triple Alliance alliance with Germany and Italy. In 1914, as part of the bloc of the Central Powers (Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and later also Bulgaria) entered the First World War.
The assassination of the Archduke by Gavrilo Princip (“Mlada Bosna”) in Sarajevo was the reason for Austria-Hungary to unleash a war against Serbia, which inevitably led to a conflict with the Russian Empire, which entered into a defensive alliance with the latter.

Borders

In the north, Austria-Hungary bordered on Saxony, Prussia and Russia, in the east - on Romania and Russia, in the south - on Romania, Serbia, Turkey, Montenegro and Italy and was washed by the Adriatic Sea, and in the west - on Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Bavaria. (Since 1871, Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria are part of the German Empire).

Administrative division

Politically, Austria-Hungary was divided into two parts - the Austrian Empire (see for more details Austrian lands within Austria-Hungary), governed with the help of the Reichsrat, and the Kingdom of Hungary, which included the historical lands of the Hungarian crown and was subordinate to the Hungarian parliament and government. Unofficially, these two parts were called Cisleithania and Transleithania, respectively. Annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908, Bosnia and Herzegovina was not included in either Cisleithania or Transleithania and was governed by special authorities.

Collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918

Simultaneously with the defeat in the war, Austria-Hungary disintegrated (November 1918): Austria (as part of the German-speaking lands) declared itself a republic, in Hungary the king from the Habsburg dynasty was deposed, and the Czech lands and Slovakia formed a new independent state - Czechoslovakia. Slovenian, Croatian and Bosnian lands became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 - Yugoslavia). The Krakow land and territories with a predominant Ukrainian population (known within Austria-Hungary as Galicia) went to another new state - Poland. Trieste, the southern part of Tyrol, and a little later Fiume (Rijeka) were annexed by Italy. Transylvania and Bukovina became part of Romania

A turning point - 1867 - the transformation of the unitary Austrian empire into a dualitarian Austria-Hungary:

1. Austria's defeat in the war with Prussia in 1866 - alienated from the unification of Germany;
2. National movements (for example, Hungarian).

Since February 1867 Verger. Minister D. Andrassé is developing a draft of Hungarian demands, which will allow the preservation of Austria. Empire. June-August 1867 The Austrian Emperor authorizes this project and crowns the Hungarian King. December 1867 – Law on General Affairs of Austria and Hungary – dualistic monarchy.

Those. A state in the form of a confederation with a center. Power. And limited functions.

General: monarch, single imperial minister (Andrásze), affairs (military sphere - single army; foreign policy; financing - 70% Austria and 30% Hungary); Separately: attributes of statehood, parliament, government.

Austria (Cisleithania) - 17 provinces with their own self-government (Austria, Czech Republic, Maravia, Czech Selesia, Galicia, northern Bukovina, Slovenian lands, South Tyrol, Dolmatia).

Hungary (Transleithania) is a unitary state (Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovonia, Kvavodina?).

The inevitable compromise:

• Austria: abandoned control of Hungary; retained a dominant position within the empire;
• Hungary: abandoned aspirations for full independence; received complete independence inside;
• Habsburg Dynasty: gave up absolute power; retained control in both parts of the empire.

Controlling the disintegration from a unitary state into an asymmetrical confederation:

In the second half of 1867, he adopted 3 laws of constitutional significance:

• the law on changing the imperial power;
• law on the functioning of the executive branch;
• law on universal rights of citizens;

December Constitution of 1867. Hungary has its own constitution of 1849.

The most developed are Austria and the Czech lands. Up to 90% of coal was mined. The newest sectors of the economy: electrical engineering, mechanical engineering. Hungary lagged behind due to the agrarian nature of the territory.

Features of the internal political development of Austria:

• instability within politics. Course;
• the main directions are centralist and federalist.
• multi-party system (parties based on nationality)

1868 Hungarian Law on Equality of Nationalities (Madières = Hungarians).

1868 Hungarian-Croatian Agreement. Provided for a certain autonomy for the Croats. Lands (for example, language, culture): Croatia, Slavonia, Dolmatia were part of Austria and the provisions did not apply to it.

National movements on the territory of Austria-Hungary:

1. diversity of nations;
2. the existence of 2 dominant nations: the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians by agreement in 1867;
3. The Czechs had special autonomy in the territory of the Czech Republic, Moravia and Bohemia, the Poles in Galicia, and the Croats. These are peoples who enjoy certain rights.
4. Other peoples did not have rights.

Until 1867, there was only one dominant ethnic group - the Austro-Germans, followed by the Hungarians, Czechs, and Poles.

The 2 dominant ethnic groups never had a majority (data for 1900: Slavic population in Astria - 60%, Hungarians in Hungary - 45%, Slavic peoples - 27%).

Specifics of national Relations in Austria:

1. constant balancing of authorities in deciding national Question (policy of concessions and central policy);
2. National Movements: Czech and Polish.

The Czechs, in the conditions of the A-B compromise (its preparation), simultaneously formulated their demands - “fundamental articles”, the monarchy should become trialistic. The Germans in the Czech lands, the nationalist Germans, the Hungarians, and Germany took up arms against the Czechs. Consequence: Czech nationals The demands were not implemented. Therefore, they continued to protest through peaceful means (the protest of the Czech party in the Austrian Diet - concentrated on the language demand, equality of the Czech and German languages). 1896-1897 Austrian The Prime Minister implemented the “language decree” on equality in the Czech lands - anti-Czech campaign - repeal of the decree.

The most acute contradictions: between the Germans and the Czechs; between the Germans and the Slavs; between the Austrian authorities and the Italians. Settlement of Trieste and South. Tyrol (transfer lands to Italy).

Controversies not related to the Germans: between Italians and Croats in Dalmatia; between Poles and Ukrainians in Galicia.

Reasons for national Movements and features:

• high level of economy Development;
• relative autonomy of the lands;
• developed social Culture;
• developed in the absence of strong national traditions;
• the highest degree of development and differentiation of the movement (Old Czechs; Liberals - Young Czechs; radicals - National Socialist Party; Agrarian Party, Social Democrats);
• moderate nature of movement;
• main goals: Austroslavism and federalism, trialism, pan-Slavism.

• Galicia. The level of development is low, agricultural lands with federal remnants;
• Social The structure was not entirely that of bourgeois society;
• Their own fief will remain. Class (landownership);
• Polit. Fragmentation within the framework of 3 empires (the Kingdom of Poland in Russia, in Germany and A-B);
• The most favorable conditions for the development of national Movements in Galicia, because had some autonomy (for example, the Sejm, the language, most government positions were occupied by Poles);
• Preservation of the traditions of Polish statehood;
• High differentiation of the movement: conservative-clerical groups, liberal, radical (peasant party), social democratic;
• Moderation of movement. The dominance of the ideas of Austro-Slavism, the unification of all Polish lands, the restoration of Poland to the borders before the first partition.

Specifics of national Relations in Hungary:

• strict assimilation course;
• Croatian movement.

Conditions for the development of Croats. National Movements:

• slow development capitalist. Relations, agricultural territories with feud. Remnants (large landownership);
• from 1868 it developed into conditions of autonomy: its own elected body - a council under the governor - ban;
• Croatian political fragmentation. Lands;
• lack of strong state Tradition;
• differentiation: conservative. – people’s party – populists;; liberals - the party of the right - right-handed; socialist.
• High degree of heterogeneity: legal activities on the scale of the cathedral and Austria. Sejm + armed strikes (for example, 1871);
• Main ideas: Austroslavism, Croatian trialism, concroatism, Yugoslavism;
• Different orientation of forces: pro-Austrian and pro-Hungarian.

Relations between Austria and Hungary under the national Movement:

The dynasty sought to use the national Movements to preserve their power and the integrity of the empire. Austria sought to use the Croats. National Movement to contain Hungarian separatism. Hungary supported any anti-Slavic movements in Austria to prevent the strengthening of Slavic influence.

Development of the worker and social democrat. Movements:

The labor movement has been developing since the 1860s and 70s.

1867 – first slave. Society in Vienna;

1869 – the first social democrats. Newspaper;

1873 – first democratic organization in Hungary (banned);

1874 - Social Democrats were created at the congress. Party of Austria with the right of nations to self-determination;

1878 – Czechoslavic socialist movement in the Czech lands. An association;

1878-1879 Hanfilho. Social-Democrat The party has been restored. New program: socialist character;

Since 1897 - within the framework of the Social Democrats. The party acted several times. National Parties;

1899 – Mr. Bruno. National program Question: Democrat. Federations, states with self-governing lands according to national Sign; demand for guarantees of national rights. Minorities and the prevention of national Privilege; cultural-national Autonomy of mixed territories.

1870 – general slavery. The Hungarian Party was transformed into a Social Democrat in 1880. Party;

1894 – Social Democrat. Party of Croatia and Slavonia.

Influence of national Questions for external Policy:

European policy - emphasis on the Balkans - to prevent the creation of a large South Slavic state;

The problem of foreign policy. Orientations (Russia, Germany):

• Alliance of the Three Emperors 1873;
• The final determination of the ally during the Eastern crisis of 1875-1878;
• 1879 – dual alliance under German dominance.

Since 1878, the problem of relations with Serbia. Since 1903, the aggravation of Austro-Serbian relations.

• 1882 - triple alliance with difficult relations between A-B and Italy.

Every pro-German. the step strengthened the national Problems. Czech national the movement begins to operate to other countries, i.e. to Russia.

According to historical documents, the first people who appeared on the territory of Austria-Hungary were the Illyrians, and this happened in the 5th century. BC e. A century later, the Celts moved to these lands, who in the 2nd century. BC e. formed their own state of Norik here, the capital of which was in the city of Klagenfurt.

The Kingdom of Noricum had friendly relations with the Roman Empire, thanks to which Roman influence quickly increased in the country, and in 16 BC. e. it became part of the empire, although the Celts remained relatively independent from Rome for a long time, being under the authority of their princes. Only in 40 AD. e. During the reign of Emperor Claudius, the Roman province of Noricum was formed on the site of the kingdom, which is why its territory was somewhat curtailed, since all the lands located west of the Inn River went to the province of Raetia, and the territory west of modern Vienna - to province of Pannonia. During Roman rule, a whole system of fortifications and roads was built along the banks of the Danube. The number of cities increased rapidly, and their population also grew at an accelerated pace. Local residents gradually fell under the influence of Romanesque culture, and residents from the interior regions of the empire moved to the cities.

However, such rapid development of these lands soon ceased due to the outbreaks that began in 167 AD. e. destructive Marcomannic wars. In the 4th century. n. e. The Germans (Visigoths (401 and 408), Ostrogoths (406) and Rugians (ca. 410) began to raid the territory of the future Austria-Hungary from the northern bank of the Danube. When the Roman Empire finally fell to the barbarians in 476, the kingdom of the Rugians was formed on these lands, which in 488 merged with the state of Odoacer.

Local residents of the former Roman provinces continued to be the guardians of Roman culture and speakers of Latin dialects. Even today in some mountainous regions of Switzerland and Tyrol you can find people communicating in Romansh.

Odoacer's kingdom did not last long and was captured by the Ostrogoths in 493. Many lands of the former Norik and Raetia went to the Ostrogothic state. The Lombards settled north of the Danube, and in the middle of the 6th century. they annexed all of Italy and the southern lands of the future Austria to their lands. Then the Lombards left these lands, and they were occupied by the Bavarians from the west and the Slavs from the east. Raetia was included in the Duchy of Bavaria, and the Slavs, subordinate to the Avar Khaganate, whose center was in Pannonia, settled in the lands lying between the Vienna Woods and the Julian Alps. The border between the Bavarian Duchy and the Avar Khaganate ran along the Enns River.

From the end of the 6th century. On the lands of modern Austria, a confrontation began between the Bavarian Duchy and the Khazar Khaganate. The war was quite long and went on with varying degrees of success. When it was completed, the Romanized inhabitants, driven out of the eastern regions, settled near modern Salzburg.

In 623, the inhabitants of the Kaganate rebelled, which ended with the formation of the new independent state of Samo. It did not last long, only until 658, and after its collapse the Slavic principality of Carantania was created on these lands, which included the lands of Carinthia, Styria and Carniola. At the same time, the inhabitants of these lands began to be converted to the Christian faith, and the Bishopric of Salzburg was formed in the Bavarian lands.

The Bavarian duchy, meanwhile, continued to strengthen, which ultimately led to its suzerainty over Carantania in 745. However, this did not last long, since in 788 Charlemagne defeated the Bavarian army and included these lands in the Carolingian empire he formed. After this, the Frankish army attacked the Avar Khaganate, which ceased its resistance by 805 and became part of the empire of Charlemagne. As a result, all the lands of the future Austria-Hungary began to belong to the Carolingian dynasty.

In the occupied territories, the emperor created a large number of marks (regions), such as Friuli, Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Styria. These administrative units were supposed to protect the borders and prevent uprisings by the Slavic inhabitants. In the modern lands of Lower and Upper Austria, the East Mark was formed, which was directly subordinate to Bavaria. From that time on, the active settlement of the territory of Austria-Hungary by the Germans and the displacement of the Slavs began.

Since the 870s. The marks located on the territory of Austria-Hungary were united under the leadership of Arnulf of Carinthia, who in 896 proclaimed himself emperor. The same time dates back to the resettlement of the Hungarians to Pannonia, whose army in 907 was able to defeat the Bavarian Duke Arnulf, as a result of which they captured the territory of the Eastern March.

For the war with the Hungarians, the border marks came under Bavarian control. After almost 50 years, the Hungarians were ousted. This happened after the victory of the Bavarian army, the head of which was Otto I, in the Battle of Lech in 955. Lower Austria again came under the control of the Carolingian empire, and in 960 the East March was again formed on the liberated territory.

In 976, Leopold I, the founder of the Babenberg dynasty in Austria, became Margrave of the Eastern March. In one of the historical documents dating back to 996, the name “Ostamchi” is found, from which the name Austria (German: Osterreich) was subsequently derived. Thanks to the descendants of Leopold I, the further strengthening of the statehood, independence and authority of Austria among other principalities began.

Austro-Hungarian Empire in the era of feudal fragmentation

Feudalism in Austria arose quite late - in the 11th century. By this time, a class of feudal lords had gradually formed in the state, which, in addition to counts, included a fairly large number of free ministerial knights. The movement of free peasants from other regions of the German principalities and the Catholic Church to these territories also played a major role in the settlement of the lands, since by this time a large number of Christian monasteries had been built, and in Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, large church land holdings were formed that were not located in subordination of local counts.

The main economic development of these lands was agriculture, but from the 11th century. In Styria they began to mine table salt and opened iron production. In addition, the Austrian rulers paid a lot of attention to trade, which ultimately led to the fact that during the reign of Henry II, the income of the Austrian treasury was second only to the Czech principalities.

In 1156, Austria changed its status from a principality to a duchy. This happened during the reign of Frederick Barbarossa. Gradually, Austria included more and more lands, mainly due to the territories captured from the Hungarians, and in 1192, according to the Treaty of St. Georgenberg, Styria was transferred to the duchy.

The heyday of the Duchy of Austria dates back to the reign of Leopold VI (1198–1230). At this time, Vienna became one of the largest cities in Europe, and the influence of the Babenberg dynasty in Western European lands increased greatly. However, already under the reign of his successor, Frederick II, military conflicts broke out with neighboring states, which were very ruinous for Austria.

After the Duke's death in 1246, the Babenberg male line died out, leading to an era of interregnum and internecine struggle for the throne, which broke out among several claimants. Beginning in 1251, supreme power in Austria passed into the hands of the Czech ruler Přemysl Ottokar II, who annexed Carinthia and Carniola, as a result of which a large state was formed, the territory of which occupied lands from Silesia to the Adriatic.

In 1273, Rudolph I became Holy Roman Emperor, bearing the title of Count of Habsburg. His family domains were located in the territory of modern South-West Germany. In 1278, he attacked the Austrian ruler at Sukhy Krut, after which the Austrian state and other possessions of the Czech ruler located outside the Czech Republic went to Rudolf, and in 1282 Austria and Styria were inherited by his children - Albrecht I and Rudolf II. From then on, the Habsburg dynasty ruled in Austria for almost 600 years.

In 1359, the rulers of Austria proclaimed their state an archduchy, but this status was recognized only in 1453, when the Habsburgs took the imperial throne. It was then that this dynasty became decisive in the Holy Roman Empire. Already the first Habsburgs directed their political influence to strengthen the central government and unite the disparate lands under the rule of a single monarch.

At the same time, Austria gradually increased its possessions: in 1335 the lands of Carinthia and Carniola were annexed, in 1363 - Tyrol. It was these territories that became the core of the Austrian possessions, while the ancestral lands of the Habsburgs, located in Swabia, Alsace and Switzerland, quickly lost their importance.

Duke Rudolf IV (1358–1365) made a significant contribution to the strengthening of Austria. On his orders, the collection “Privilegium Maius” was compiled, which included fabricated decrees of the Holy Roman Emperors. According to them, the Dukes of Austria received such great rights that Austria actually became an independent state. Despite the fact that this collection was recognized only in 1453, it had a huge influence on the formation of the Austrian state and its separation from the rest of the German lands.

The children of Rudolf IV - Dukes Albrecht III and Leopold III - signed the Treaty of Neuberg among themselves in 1379, under the terms of which the dynasty's possessions were divided between them. Duke Albrecht III received the Duchy of Austria into his hands, and Leopold III became the ruler of the remaining Habsburg possessions. Some time later, Leopold's possessions were again divided into smaller principalities, in particular Tyrol and Inner Austria became separate states. Such processes within the country contributed significantly to its weakening; in addition, its authority among other states decreased.

The loss of Swiss lands dates back to this time. This happened after the defeat of the Austrian army from Swiss militias in the Battle of Sempach in 1386. In addition, social conflicts began to flare up in Tyrol, Vienna and Vorarlberg. Armed conflicts often occurred between states that were previously part of Austria.

Fragmentation was overcome only in the second half of the 15th century, when the Albertine and Tyrolean branches of the Habsburg dynasty intersected and, under the rule of the Duke of Styria, Frederick V (1424–1493), all Austrian lands were again united into one state.

In 1438, the Austrian Duke Albrecht V ascended the German throne, who also became Holy Roman Emperor. From this moment until the empire ceased to exist, representatives of the Habsburg dynasty occupied the imperial throne. From that time on, Vienna was named the capital of Germany, and the Duchy of Austria became one of the most influential German states. In 1453, the Austrian monarch nevertheless achieved for himself the title of Archduke, which, as mentioned above, was introduced into the “Privilegium Maius” in 1358. This title gave the ruler of Austria equal rights with the electors of the empire.

When Frederick III came to power (Fig. 19), the state suffered greatly due to the huge number of conflicts among the Habsburgs, class uprisings and armed confrontation with Hungary.

Rice. 19. Ruler Frederick III

In 1469, Turkish troops began to raid Austrian lands, which also led to a significant weakening of the state and the duke himself. Despite this, it was during the reign of Frederick III that the territories of the Duchy of Burgundy (1477), which then included the Netherlands and Luxembourg, were annexed to Austria. This was made possible by Frederick's dynastic marriage, which was the first step towards the formation of a great Habsburg power.

The beginning of the formation of a united nation

In the XIII–XV centuries. A class system was formed in the Austrian state. The clergy until the 15th century. was completely exempt from taxes, but gradually began to lose this privilege when Frederick III received permission from the Pope to collect taxes on church property. The magnates who managed their fiefs, granted by the duke, were allocated as a separate class. The ruling elite in the cities of the duchy were merchants, and starting from the 14th century. It was decided to include masters of craft workshops. The burgomaster and some members of the city council were appointed directly by the duke.

The peasantry gradually merged into one class of dependent peasants. Despite this, quite a lot of free peasants remained in Tyrol and Vorarlberg. In Carinthia, the Edling class was formed, who were personally free landowners who paid taxes to the state treasury.

Already in the 14th century. In the Austrian state, the first class representations began to appear - Landtags, which included priests, magnates, nobles and deputies from each provincial city. In Tyrol and Vorarlberg there are also free peasants.

The first Landtag was convened in the Duchy of Austria in 1396. The most significant among all the others was the Tyrolean Landtag. During the reign of Archduke Sigismund (1439–1490), the Tyrolean Landtag managed to take control of the Austrian government, in addition, the representation actually forced the Archduke to abdicate the throne. Since the 15th century The rulers of Austria periodically convened the united Landtags of several duchies at once, which became one of the prerequisites for the creation of a representative body of the entire Austrian Empire.

In the late Middle Ages, the mining industry began to develop at an accelerated pace in Austria. This primarily affected Styria, Carinthia and Tyrol. Iron mines were intensively developed, and a deposit of precious metals was discovered in Tyrol. The first large factories engaged in the extraction and processing of iron were formed, one of which was located in Leoben. In the 16th century The first capitalist manufactories appeared in Austria.

The silver and copper mines of Tyrol were the main source of income for the rulers of Austria. In the 16th century they were taken over by the Fuggers, a southern German banking house that was a creditor to the Habsburgs. Vienna became the largest trading center in Austria, controlling most of the foreign trade, in particular with the Czech Republic and Hungary.

In the 15th century In Austria, the beginnings of a system of universal education appeared, manifested in the opening of public schools in large cities. In 1365, the University of Vienna was created, which soon became one of the largest centers of education in Europe. The German language began to spread more and more actively, penetrating into administrative affairs and literature. Already at the end of the 14th century. The first chronicle in German appeared in Austria - “sterreichische Landesschronik”. Over the next century, the Austrian nation gradually took shape, which by the end of the 15th century. began to oppose itself to the German one.

In the 1470s. In Carinthia and Styria, one of the largest class uprisings broke out - the Peasant Union movement. It began as an attempt to repel the Turkish conquerors, and after some time grew into a major anti-feudal uprising. In 1514–1515 In the same lands, another uprising broke out - the Vendian Union - which government troops were able to suppress quickly enough.

From the middle of the 15th century. The center of the Holy Roman Empire finally moved to Vienna. In 1496, after another profitable dynastic marriage, Spain and its lands in Italy, Africa and America were annexed to the Habsburg possessions, although it was decided not to include Spanish lands in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1500, the Habsburgs introduced the regions of Hertz and Gradiška into their empire.

All Habsburg lands in 1520 were divided into two parts, the larger of which consisted of Spain, along with its colonies and the Netherlands, and the smaller of the indigenous possessions of the Habsburgs. After this, the dynasty was divided into two large branches - the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.

The Austrian branch of the Habsburgs continued to unite their lands around the duchy. In 1526, when the king of Bohemia and Hungary died, the commission decided to elect Archduke Ferdinand I as a new ruler. Heading two new large possessions, he became one of the most influential monarchs in Europe. However, the following year he was elected king of Croatia.

The lands of Hungary remained controversial for Austria and the Ottoman Empire for quite a long time. Part of the Hungarian nobility elected Jan Zapolski as ruler of the state, supported by the Ottoman Empire. After the capture of Buda by the Ottoman army in 1541, the central and southern lands of Hungary went to the Ottoman Empire, and the northwestern part of the kingdom was annexed to Austria. Hungary completely became part of Austria only in 1699 following the Peace of Karlowitz.

In the XVI–XVII centuries. Austrian territories were again divided between several branches of the Habsburg family. In 1564, Austria, Bohemia and some lands of Hungary and Croatia went to the Austrian line, the Styrian branch received Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and the Tyrolean branch received Tyrol and Western Austria (Vorarlberg, Alsace, which soon became part of France under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia treaty of 1648, as well as some West German possessions). The Tyrolean branch soon lost its lands, and they were all divided between the other two branches.

In 1608–1611 all of Austria was already practically united into one state, but in 1619 Tyrol and Western Austria were again separated into a separate possession. The final unification of the Austrian lands took place only in 1665.

In 1701, the Spanish Habsburg dynasty ended, after which the War of the Spanish Succession began, as a result of which the Habsburgs were unable to regain all the lands that belonged to their dynasty, but Austria took possession of the former Spanish Netherlands (from that time on they began to be called the Austrian Netherlands ), as well as some lands on the Apennine Peninsula (Duchy of Milan, Naples, Sardinia, soon exchanged for Sicily (in 1720)). Successful military operations against the Ottoman Empire led to Austria in 1716 annexing Slavonia, part of Bosnia, Serbia and Wallachia to its lands.

Mid-18th century was not very successful for the Habsburg dynasty. The War of the Polish Succession, which broke out in the middle of the century, led to the signing of the Treaty of Vienna in 1738, according to which Naples and Sicily passed into the hands of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty as the united Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. As compensation, the Austrian rulers received the Duchy of Parma, located in northern Italy.

The next war with the Ottoman Empire ended in the defeat of Austrian arms, which is why the state lost Belgrade, as well as the lands of Bosnia and Wallachia. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) soon followed, which ended with even more significant territorial losses: Prussia gained possession of Silesia, and Parma returned to the Bourbons.

In 1774, in exchange for military support during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Ottoman Empire transferred to Austria part of the territory of the Principality of Moldavia - Bukovina. In 1779, after the War of the Bavarian Succession, the Austrian state took possession of the Inviertel region. In addition, Austria received quite large areas after the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: in 1772 it annexed Galicia, and in 1795 the southern lands of Poland along with the cities of Krakow and Lublin.

Empire during the Napoleonic Wars

During the Napoleonic Wars, Austria again lost part of its lands. According to the Treaty of Campoformia, signed in 1797, the Austrian Netherlands passed to France, and Lombardy, with its capital in Milan, became part of the Cisalpine Republic, which was formed by Napoleon. Almost all the territories of the Venetian Republic, including Istria and Dolmatia, went to Austria, but according to the next peace treaty - the Peace of Presburg in 1805 - Istria and Dolmatia passed to France, the Tyrol to Bavaria, and the entire Venetian region began to belong to the Kingdom of Italy. In return for the lost lands, Austria received the Grand Duchy of Salzburg.

During the Napoleonic wars, another peace treaty was concluded - the Treaty of Schönbrunn, under the terms of which Salzburg began to belong to Bavaria, Karantia, as well as other lands overlooking the Adriatic coast, went to France and became part of the Illyrian provinces, the Tarnopol region - to Russia, and the lands received by Austria during the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - to the Duchy of Warsaw. The Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist in 1806, when Emperor Francis II (Fig. 20) abdicated its throne.

Rice. 20. Emperor Franz II

This ruler received the title of Emperor of Austria in 1804 immediately after Napoleon assumed the title in France. For 2 years, Franz II was the bearer of two imperial titles - Austrian and Holy Roman Empire.

After the defeat of the French army, the Congress of Vienna was convened (1814–1815), as a result of which Austria was able to regain almost all of the lost lands. The Empire again gained possession of Tyrol, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, the Illyrian provinces, and the Tarnopol region. It was decided to make Krakow a free city, and Russia, Austria and Prussia became its patrons. This time period dates back to a significant rise in Austrian culture, especially in musical terms, which is associated with the work of such outstanding composers as V.A. Mozart and I. Haydn.

Armed clashes did not stop even after the end of the Napoleonic wars. Here, Austria's main opponents were France and the Ottoman Empire, whose troops repeatedly reached Vienna and besieged it. Thanks to victories over the Turks, Austria was able to significantly increase its territories - Hungary, Transylvania, Slovenia and Croatia were annexed to it.

Despite the fact that the Austrian Empire was governed as one state for quite a long time, in fact it never became a single entity. The empire included several kingdoms (Bohemia, or the Czech Republic, Hungary, Galicia and Lodomiria, Dalmatia, Lombardy and Venice, Croatia, Slovakia), two archduchies (Upper Austria and Lower Austria), a number of duchies (Bukovina, Carinthia, Silesia, Styria ), Grand Duchy of Transylvania, Margraviate of Moravia and several other counties. In addition, all these territories at one time had autonomy, which was expressed primarily in the presence of representative bodies (diets and landstags, which included people from the large nobility and merchants). The political power of these bodies may have changed over time. In some cases, to manage these lands, special central institutions were formed, and sometimes judicial bodies, for example, similar formations existed in Bohemia.

The emperor either independently led the state entities within his empire, or administered the territories through his governors. The local nobility could influence the politics of their territory, but it was extremely insignificant and did not last very long. In addition, the emperor reserved the right to assume the powers of the legislative body, leaving within his competence only voting on privileges, mobilizing the armed forces and introducing new monetary duties.

The representative body met only at the direction of the emperor. Quite often it happened that the Diet or Landtag did not meet for entire decades, and only certain political considerations could motivate the emperor to convene it, for example, the risk of class revolts, raising troops, receiving the support of feudal lords or city residents.

Hungary and Bohemia have always claimed a special status. The first occupied a special place in the Habsburg possessions, and also defended its independence from other states for quite a long time.

The hereditary rights of the Habsburgs to the Hungarian throne were recognized only in 1687 at the Diet assembled in the city of Presburg. By 1699, the Hungarian lands, free from Ottoman influence, were divided into several regions - Hungary, Transylvania (Semigradye), Croatia, Banat, Bačka.

Due to the fact that the Habsburg dynasty arbitrarily divided the liberated territories between the nobility of Austria and Hungary, an uprising broke out in 1703–1711, led by Ferenc II Rakoczi. It ended with the conclusion of the Satmar Peace of 1711, according to which Hungary received a number of concessions, for example, Hungarians were allowed to hold government positions in the empire. The conflict was completely settled only in 1724, when the Hungarian Diet approved the “Pragmatic Sanction,” which was submitted by the Austrian Archduke. According to this document, the Habsburg dynasty ruled the Hungarian lands not as emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, but as kings of Hungary, i.e. they were forced to obey the laws of this state. However, despite this treaty, the Habsburgs still continued to treat Hungary as one of their own provinces.

In 1781, it was decided to unite Hungary, Croatia and Transylvania into one entity, which was called the Lands of the Crown of Stephen the Holy, but all this remained only on paper, since Croatia was able to gain some autonomy. The Diet of Hungary was dissolved, and German became the official language of the new state.

Ten years later, Hungary was again formally divided, but in practice this resulted in additional centralization of the management of the Hungarian lands, in addition, the Croatian Kingdom found itself almost completely subordinate to the ruler of Hungary. The Sejm was restored again, but the Hungarian language received state status only in 1825.

The territories of the Bohemian Crown before the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) had almost complete autonomy. After the Czech army was defeated in the battle of White Mountain in 1620, the Catholic Reformation began in Bohemia, that is, the conversion of all inhabitants of these lands to the Catholic faith, as a result of which the lands of the Bohemian crown were equal in rights with the rest of the provinces, owned by the Habsburg dynasty.

In 1627, a New Zemstvo Code was developed specifically for the Czech Republic, which retained the Sejm, but all legislative power was transferred to the king - the Archduke of Austria. In addition, according to this code, traditional public oral proceedings were replaced by written and secret ones, and the German language received equal rights with the Czech language.

Subsequently, Bohemia tried to regain its autonomy, for example, in 1720 the Sejm adopted the “Pragmatic Sanction”, but despite this, until the second half of the 19th century. Regarding the Czech Republic, the policy of Germanization of the population continued to be pursued. This led to the fact that in 1784 German became the official language - it was in it that teaching was to be conducted in educational institutions, including at the University of Prague.

Austria-Hungary in the 19th century

In 1848, a revolution occurred in the Austrian Empire. The rebels wanted to gain civil rights and freedoms and eliminate the remaining feudal remnants. In addition, one of the reasons for the revolution was interethnic contradictions in a state inhabited by different peoples, caused by the desire of each of them for cultural and political independence. In fact, it so happened that the revolution soon broke up into several revolutionary uprisings in different parts of the empire.

Members of the imperial family, as well as senior government officials, decided to make some concessions, and on March 15, 1848, the emperor, in his address to the Austrian people, promised to convene a constituent assembly, which was supposed to lay the foundation for the constitutional structure of the country. Already on April 25, 1848, the Austrian Minister of the Interior, Pillesdorf, made public the first Austrian constitution, which was completely borrowed from Belgium. According to it, a bicameral parliament was formed in the country, whose members were elected by indirect voting and according to a censorship system. However, this constitution was not in force in the territory of Hungary and the Lombardo-Venetian region. In addition, the Czech Republic and the Galician government did not want to ratify this document. The resistance of these areas of the empire was soon joined by the opposition-minded population of Austria itself.

The Committee of the Academic Legion and the National Guard considered the draft constitution to be insufficiently democratic. To abolish it, the committee decided to join forces, as a result of which the Central Political Committee was created. The Ministry of the Interior immediately issued a decree dissolving it, but there were not sufficient armed forces in Vienna, so the committee decided to resist. As a result, Minister Pillesdorf was forced to recognize him and make concessions to him. He promised that the constitution would be revised by a future parliament, reduced to one chamber. On May 25, 1848, the government again tried to dissolve the Central Political Committee, but barricades immediately appeared in Vienna, which were occupied by workers sympathetic to the committee. Thus, its dissolution was again thwarted. By decree of June 3, the Austrian emperor confirmed all the concessions he had made on May 15, and also expressed his desire for the speedy opening of parliament.

Returning from Frankfurt on July 22, 1848, the Archduke solemnly opened the first meeting of the Austrian parliament. In his speech delivered there, he spoke about the equality of all peoples living in the empire, the desire to quickly conclude an alliance with Germany and Hungary, and problems within the state that must be resolved in the near future.

Already at the first meeting of parliament, the project to recognize German as the state language was subjected to severe criticism. The fact is that about a quarter of the deputies of the first Austrian parliament belonged to the peasant class. Almost immediately, the peasants began to pursue a policy to overcome feudal remnants - on this issue, representatives of this class from all regions of the empire were of absolutely the same opinion.

Soon, the Austrian government again tried to dissolve the Central Political Committee, which caused unrest to begin again, but the uprising was completely suppressed by October 31, 1848 by the troops of Marshal Windischgrätz, after which the new Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I decided to dissolve the parliament responsible for development of a new constitutional project. Instead, on March 4, 1849, the emperor published his version of the future constitution, which was called the March Constitution. It proclaimed the unity of the territory of the Austrian Empire, but this time it included all lands, including Hungary. The same ones that were represented in the Imperial Council (Reichsrat) began to be called crown ones in the constitution of Emperor Franz Joseph I.

The entry of Hungary into the Austrian Empire was completely contrary to the existing “Pragmatic Sanction”. In response to such actions of the Austrian emperor, the Hungarian Diet adopted a decision according to which the Habsburg dynasty was deprived of the Hungarian crown, the “Pragmatic Sanction” was terminated, and a republic was proclaimed on the territory of Hungary.

Russian troops also took part in suppressing the revolution in Hungary. The uprising ended in his complete defeat. As a result, it was decided to deprive Hungary of its parliament, and the division of its lands into traditional committees was also cancelled. The former kingdom was headed by a governor who was appointed by the Austrian emperor himself. It was decided to establish a military government in Transylvania. The Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia became crown lands, separated from Hungary, the regions of Banat and Bačka were united with some Hungarian and Slavonian lands into the Serbian Voivodeship. This happened back in 1848, and in 1849 this territorial union received the name of the Voivodeship of Serbia and Tamis-Banat, and their status was the same as that of the crown lands.

The Austrian constitution of 1849 did not last long. By imperial decree of December 31, 1851, it was declared invalid, and all Landtags were replaced by advisory committees, which included nobles and large landowners.

After Austria lost the Austro-Prussian War, there was an urgent need to find a compromise with the Hungarian aristocracy, and the memories of the unrest in the Hungarian territories were still fresh.

During negotiations with representatives of the Hungarian aristocracy, Hungary received broad autonomy, after which the Austro-Hungarian Empire was formed. All reforms carried out subsequently concerned mainly the adoption of the constitution of the new state and the formation of a bicameral parliament - the Reichsrat. The largest parties included in the Austro-Hungarian parliament were the conservatives (Christian Social Party) and the Marxist Social Democrats. However, universal male suffrage was introduced only in 1907.

Collapse of the Empire

Since the beginning of the 20th century. Austria-Hungary underwent some territorial changes. In 1908, Bosnia was annexed to the empire, and after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo, the First World War began, which ended extremely unsuccessfully for the empire. Austria-Hungary was defeated and its Emperor Charles I was forced to abdicate, leading to the collapse of the empire.

After this, the monarchical system of Austria was eliminated and was replaced by a parliamentary form of government, in which the chancellor received the leading role in the state. Having lost access to the sea and large provinces, Austria found itself in a deep crisis, which was also aggravated by a sense of injured pride for defeat in the war.

In 1938, the state was annexed by Nazi Germany. After the end of World War II, it was decided to divide Austria into four occupation zones - American, British, Soviet and French. The troops of the victorious countries were on the territory of Austria until 1955, when its independence was finally restored.

With the fall of communist rule in Eastern European countries, the Austrian government was faced with a serious problem of illegal immigrants. In order to combat the flow of workers entering the country, restrictions were introduced on the entry of foreigners. In 1995, Austria was admitted to the European Union. That same year, the far-right Freedom Party, led by Jörg Haider, won the elections to the Austrian parliament.

The Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary in the 19th century

In the 19th century, the rulers of the multinational Austrian Empire had to fight revolutionary and national liberation movements on their territory. Interethnic contradictions, which could not be resolved, led Austria-Hungary to the threshold of the First World War.

Background

The Austrian ruler Franz II proclaimed the Habsburg hereditary possessions as an empire and himself as Emperor Francis I, in response to the imperial policies of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Austrian Empire suffered defeats, but in the end, thanks to the actions of Russia, it was among the winners. It was in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire, that an international congress took place in 1815, at which the fate of post-war Europe was determined. After the Congress of Vienna, Austria tried to resist any revolutionary manifestations on the continent.

Events

1859 - defeat in the war with France and Sardinia, loss of Lombardy (see).

1866 - defeat in the war with Prussia and Italy, loss of Silesia and Venice (see).

Problems of the Austrian Empire

The Austrian Empire was not a strong national state with a unified history and culture. Rather, it represented the heterogeneous possessions of the Habsburg dynasty accumulated over centuries, whose inhabitants had different ethnic and national identities. The Austrians themselves, whose native language was German, constituted a minority in the Austrian Empire. In addition to them, in this state there was a large number of Hungarians, Serbs, Croats, Czechs, Poles and representatives of other peoples. Some of these peoples had full experience of living within the framework of an independent nation-state, so their desire to gain at least broad autonomy within the empire, and at most complete independence, was very strong.

At the same time, the Austrian rulers made concessions only to the extent necessary to maintain the formal unity of the state. In general, the peoples' desire for independence was suppressed.

In 1867, with the granting of broad autonomy to Hungary, Austria also adopted a constitution and convened a parliament. There was a gradual liberalization of electoral legislation until the introduction of universal suffrage for men.

Conclusion

The national policy of Austria-Hungary, within the framework of which the peoples who inhabited it did not receive equal status with the Austrians and continued to strive for independence, became one of the reasons for the collapse of this state after the First World War.

Parallels

Austria is clear evidence of the instability of empire as a type of state entity. If several peoples coexist within the framework of one state, while the powers of power belong to one of them, and the rest are in a subordinate position, such a state will sooner or later be forced to spend enormous resources in order to keep all these peoples in the orbit of its influence, and in the end eventually becomes unable to cope with this task. The story of the Ottoman Empire was similar, which in its heyday conquered many peoples, and then turned out to be unable to resist their desire for independence.

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By the 30s - 40s. XIX century The Austrian Empire was a multinational state. It included the territories of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, as well as part of the territory of modern Romania, Poland, Italy and Ukraine. In these lands, the desire for state independence and national independence grew stronger. The Habsburgs tried to preserve the empire at the cost of minor concessions to the peoples who inhabited it.

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The Austrian Empire in the first half of the 19th century The peasantry remained without rights, corvee labor reached 104 days a year, and quitrent was collected. The country was dominated by guild restrictions. There were internal customs duties. The construction of new manufactories and factories was prohibited. Severe censorship. The school was under the control of the clergy. Political and spiritual oppression of the peoples of the empire (the principle of “divide and conquer” was applied to the oppressed peoples). Emperor of the Austrian Empire Franz I Austrian Chancellor Clement Wenzel Metternich

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1848 - revolutions in the Austrian Empire (Austria, Hungary, Czech Republic) The development of the industrial revolution was hampered by the old feudal order. The prohibitive policy of the Habsburgs in the field of economics. Political repression. 1847 – global economic crisis (“the hungry forties”) The desire of the peoples of the empire for national independence. Causes Results of the Revolution suppressed by the troops of Austria and Russia Emperor of the Austrian Empire Ferdinand I (1835 - 1848)

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Results of the revolutions in the Austrian Empire Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne in favor of his nephew, eighteen-year-old Franz Joseph (1830-1916). Introduction of a constitution establishing the integrity of the empire. Establishing a high property qualification for voters. Carrying out peasant reform in Hungary: the abolition of corvée and church tithes, one third of the cultivated land passed into the hands of the peasants. All peoples of the Hungarian kingdom received political freedoms and land. However, the peoples of the Austrian Empire did not receive national independence. Emperor of the Austrian Empire Franz Joseph

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1867 - Austro-Hungarian agreement on the transformation of the Habsburg Empire into a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, consisting of two states independent from each other in the internal affairs - Austria and Hungary. Defeats in the wars with France, Piedmont and Prussia Unrest in Hungary The need to strengthen the integrity of the state increased Emperor of Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph

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Political structure of Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary is a constitutional monarchy without universal suffrage Franz Joseph - Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary But Austria and Hungary each had their own: constitution, parliament, government. Austria and Hungary have in common: flag, army, three ministries: military , finance and foreign affairs. financial system. There were no customs borders between Austria and Hungary

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1868 - The Czech state (Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) raised the question of separation from Austria. Austria agreed to carry out democratic reforms: The property qualification that gave the right to participate in elections was reduced, as a result, wide layers of small owners of the city and village, some workers received voting right. The Czechs got their representatives into the Austrian parliament. In areas where there was a mixed population, two languages ​​were introduced, and officials of the Czech Republic and Moravia were required to know them. In general, the position of the Czechs, who raised the question of complete separation from Austria, remained the same. Hungary also opposed their claims to independence, fearing similar demands from “their” Slavs.

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All Austrian governments pursued a policy of small concessions in order to maintain the population of the empire in a "state of moderate discontent" and not drive them into dangerous explosions. Austria-Hungary became a federation, but the borders of Austria and Hungary did not coincide with national borders.

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Austria-Hungary at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. From the late 1880s. the pace of economic development accelerated. Large centers of transport engineering and weapons production grew. In connection with the rapid development of railway construction, metal processing and mechanical engineering began to actively develop. In Hungary, the leading industry was the processing of agricultural products. In 1873, three cities - Buda, Pest and Óbuda - merged into one city, Budapest. In 1887, the first tram ran through the city, and in 1895 the metro opened. By the beginning of the 20th century. Monopoly capitalism was rapidly developing in the empire (cartels were the main form of business association). England, France and Germany actively invested capital in the industry of the empire. The old nobility, in alliance with the new bourgeoisie, became the dominant force of the empire. In the village there was a process of stratification of the peasantry.

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Problems of Austria-Hungary at the beginning of the twentieth century Government crises (from 1897 to 1914, governments changed 15 times in Austria). Social legislation in the country practically did not exist. Only in 1907 in Austria did the parliament pass a new electoral law, granting the right to vote to all men over 24 years of age. In Hungary in 1908, the right to vote was granted only to literate men, and the owners of any property received two votes. Land-poor and landless peasants went to the cities or emigrated. The bulk of the peasants lived in terrible poverty. In many areas, landowners and peasants belonged to different nationalities, and this increased national hostility. The desire for national independence and state independence of the peoples that were part of the empire At the beginning of the 20th century. the empire rested largely on the authority of the old emperor and on the bayonets of the Habsburg army. Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary

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Foreign policy of Austria-Hungary At the beginning of the 20th century. Austria-Hungary began to intensify its penetration into the Balkans. In 1878, the empire received the right to administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, which formally remained part of the Ottoman Empire. 1882 Austria-Hungary entered the Triple Alliance. In 1908, a revolution occurred in Turkey, the emperor sent troops into Bosnia and Herzegovina and declared them part of Austria-Hungary. Tension was growing in the Balkans, and the interests of leading European powers were colliding there. On June 28, 1914, Gavrila Princip, a member of the secret nationalist organization Mlada Bosna, killed in Sarajevo the nephew of Franz Joseph, heir to the Austro-Hungarian thrones, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, who was there at military maneuvers. This became the reason for the outbreak of the First World War.

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Homework § 23. Workbook No. 2: No. 33-36 pp. 15-17