Main functions of green spaces. The role of green spaces in urban ecosystems Green spaces in cities perform the functions

SUPREME COURT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

DEFINITION

Judicial Collegium for Administrative Cases of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, consisting of

presiding Khamenkov V.B.,

judges Kalinina L.A., Ksenofontova O.A.,

considered in open court the case on the cassation appeals of the Sakhalin Regional Duma, the Governor of the Sakhalin Region against the decision of the Sakhalin Regional Court dated December 28, 2010, which declared invalid from the date the court decision entered into force part 1 of Article 19 of the Law of the Sakhalin Region dated March 29, 2004 No. 490 “On administrative offenses in the Sakhalin region” (as amended by the Law of the Sakhalinregion of December 29, 2004 N 564) regarding the words “and other areas with green spaces” and “other areas with green spaces”.

Having heard the report of the judge of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation L.A. Kalinina, the conclusion of the prosecutor of the General Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation N.Ya. Selyanina, who considered the decision irrevocable, the Judicial Collegium

installed:

Part 1 of Article 19 of the Law of the Sakhalin Region “On Administrative Offenses in the Sakhalin Region”, adopted on March 18, 2007 by the Sakhalin Regional Duma (as amended by the laws of the Sakhalin Region dated April 29, 2004 N 564 and October 29, 2007 N 106-ZO ), responsibility has been established for washing vehicles outside the places specially designated for this by local government bodies of the Sakhalin region, parking inlawns and other areas with green spaces, movement on lawns and other areas with green spaces, parking on the roadway of courtyard areas, preventing mechanized cleaning and removal of household waste, outside places specially designated for this by local governments in the form of a warning or imposition of an administrative penalty on citizens a fine in the amount of three hundred to one thousand rubles; for officials - from three thousand to ten thousand rubles; for legal entities - from fifteen thousand to thirty thousand rubles.

KulaiE.V. appealed to the Sakhalin Regional Court with an application to declare invalid from the date of adoption of part 1 of Article 19 of the above-mentioned Law of the Sakhalin Region in terms of the words “and other areas with green spaces” and “other areas with green spaces”, citing an excess of the competence of the Sakhalin Regional Duma in areas of regulation of legislation on administrative offenses and the contradiction of the adopted normative act to the federallegislation due to legal uncertainty.

In support of the application, she indicated that the disposition of Part 1 of Article 19 of the Contested Law is stated in such a way that, in the absence of the concept of “other areas with green spaces” in the Law, it causes ambiguity and uncertainty, allows the contested norm to be freely interpreted and, as a consequence, makes it possible to unreasonably attract administrative responsibility.

Representatives of the Sakhalin Regional Duma and the Governor of the Sakhalin Region did not agree with the stated demands.

By the decision of the Sakhalin Regional Court of December 28, 2010, the statement of Kulai E.V. satisfied, part 1 of Article 19 of the Law of the Sakhalin Region of March 29, 2004 N 490 “On Administrative Offenses in the Sakhalin Region” regarding the words “and other areas with green spaces” and “other areas with green spaces” was declared invalid from the moment the said decisions into legal force.

The cassation appeals of the Sakhalin Regional Duma and the Governor of the Sakhalin Region raised the issue of canceling the decision as made in violation of the norms of substantive and procedural law.

Having studied the arguments of the cassation appeals and checked the case materials, the Judicial Collegium finds no grounds for canceling the decision.

In accordance with Part 2 of Article 76 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws and regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation adopted in accordance with them are issued on subjects of joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation cannot contradict federal laws adopted in accordance with parts 1 and 2 of this article.

By virtue of Article 253 of the Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, having established that the contested normative legal act or part of it contradicts a federal law or another normative legal act of greater legal force, the court declares the normative legal act ineffective in whole or in part from the date of its adoption or otherwise time specified by the court.

From the disposition of the contested part 1 of Article 19 of the Law of the Sakhalin Region “On Administrative Offenses in the Sakhalin Region” it follows that liability is established for failure to comply with the rules, standards, and requirements for parking vehicles. In this case, the subject of the offense is green spaces, the green fund of the territory of settlements, that is, an object of the natural environment that creates favorable living conditions in the region.

Meanwhile, these requirements are regulated by federal legislation, which predetermined the establishment of administrative liability in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Failure to comply with the requirements of legislation in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population means a violation of the requirements of the Federal Law of January 10, 2002 N 7-FZ "On Environmental Protection" and the Federal Law of March 30, 1999 N 52-FZ "On Sanitary and Epidemiological Welfare population." The ban on parking cars in green areas is provided for by the Rules for the creation, protection and maintenance of green spaces in the cities of the Russian Federation (Order of the Gosstroy of Russia dated December 15, 1999 N 153), Rules and norms for the technical operation of the housing stock (Order of the Gosstroy of Russia dated September 27, 2003 . N 170), Sanitary rules for the maintenance of territories of populated areas (SanPiN 42-128-4690-88).

In accordance with the said federal legislation, environmental protection is the activity of state authorities of the Russian Federation, state authorities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments, public and other non-profit associations, legal entities and individuals, aimed at preserving and restoring the natural environment, rational use and reproduction of natural resources, prevention of the negative impact of economic and other activities on the environment and liquidation its consequences.

In such a situation, the court, satisfying the application of Kulai E.V., reasonably came to the conclusion that the contested legal regulation was established by a constituent entity of the Russian Federation in excess of its competence in the field of legislation on administrative offenses, since administrative liability for parking on lawns "and other areas with green spaces" and traffic on lawns and "other areas with green spaces" is established at the federal level.

The legislation on administrative offenses consists of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation and the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on administrative offenses adopted in accordance with it. The objectives of the legislation on administrative offenses are to protect the individual, protect the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, protect the health of citizens, the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population, protect public morality, protect the environment, the established procedure for the exercise of state power, public order and public safety, property, protection legitimate economic interests of individuals and legal entities, society and the state from administrative offenses. The jurisdiction of the Russian Federation in the field of legislation on administrative offenses includes the establishment of administrative liability on issues of federal significance, including administrative liability for violation of the rules and regulations provided for by federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation (Articles 1.1, 1.2 and clause 3, part 1, article 1.3 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation).

The arguments of the cassation appeals, which boil down to the fact that the court incorrectly interpreted the norms of the Federal Law of December 10, 1995 N 196-FZ “On Road Safety”, that the court should not check the contested provision for compliance with the Traffic Rules approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated December 23, 1993 N 1090, insolvent.

From the analysis of this offense, its complex object is seen. From the objective side, the offense is expressed in non-compliance with the established rules for the operation of vehicles, therefore the court correctly noted that the object of administrative offenses in transport is public relations in the field of safe operation of vehicles (public safety). Public safety as a generic object of this group of offenses unites social relations that ensure the protection of life and health of people, property, the natural environment, and the safe operation of transport. The specific object of an offense in transport is the established management procedure, traffic safety and operation of a certain type of transport.

The concept of “parking” is provided for by the Traffic Rules, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of October 23, 1993 N 1090. Chapters 12 and 17 of the same Rules regulate the procedure for driving, stopping and parking vehicles both on the road and in residential areas and courtyards . At the same time, the court correctly took into account that in the residential area and courtyards there may be areas with green spaces.

The panel of judges agreed with the court’s conclusion that the mere fact that the contested norm is located in Chapter 4 of the said Law, which provides for liability for administrative offenses in the field of housing and communal services and public improvement, does not indicate that the contested norm regulates another object of the offense, since from its content it follows that it regulates legal relations in the field of public security.

Motor vehicles are sources of negative impacts on the environment and human health.

Parking vehicles in areas with green spaces also means the failure of citizens and organizations to fulfill the obligation to protect nature and the environment, ensure the safety of green spaces, and carry out actions that entail a violation of the rights of other citizens to health protection and a favorable living environment.

Parking vehicles in areas with green spaces is nothing more than a negative impact on these green spaces, as well as on the soil, and therefore the subject of the Russian Federation did not have the right to establish administrative responsibility for parking vehicles “in other areas with green spaces.”

The cassator's argument that the administrative responsibility established at the regional level is in connection with the regulatory legal acts of local governments and regulates issues of improvement at the local level is untenable.

The panel of judges agrees with the conclusion of the court of first instance that the use of the term “and other areas with green spaces” in the context of the disposition of the article allows for its arbitrary interpretation law enforcer, and this is not consistent with the requirements of clarity and unambiguity of legislative regulation.

Since the semantic load in the contested norm falls not on the concept of “green spaces”, but on the concept of “plots with green spaces” (a site is not any, but a specific territory), references from representatives of the Sakhalin Regional Duma and the regional governor to GOST 28329-89 rejected by the court of first instance with good reason.

In accordance with Article 61 of the Federal Law “On Environmental Protection”, the green fund of urban settlements and rural settlements is a set of territories in which forests and other plantings are located, including in green zones, forest park areas and other green areas within the boundaries of these settlements , and therefore, not any territories are subject to protection, but those defined by law.

Other arguments in complaints about violation by the court of first instance of the rules of procedural law in connection with the consideration of the case in the absence of the applicant, violation by the court of the requirements of Art. 131 of the Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation when accepting the application of Kulai E.V. are also insolvent, since they do not affect the rights of cassator.

The court's decision is legal and justified; there are no grounds for its cancellation.

Based on the above, guided by Articles 361, 362 of the Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, the Judicial Collegium

determined:

the decision of the Sakhalin Regional Court of December 28, 2010 was left unchanged, the cassation appeals of the Sakhalin Regional Duma and the governor of the Sakhalin Region were not satisfied.

Any gardener knows that there is no more tedious and thankless task than fighting weeds. Too much effort and time is spent on weeding by hand or with the help of hoes and flat cutters, and the result, even if it pleases, does not last long. You won’t have time to walk through the area to the end, and weeds will already appear again in the weeded areas. And this is on an already inhabited site, and what can we say about virgin soil! We’ll tell you in this article how to quickly and permanently get rid of weeds.

Summer is not only the summer season, sun, vacation, warm sea, but also fresh vegetables, berries and fruits. However, today, when looking at market stalls, the question increasingly arises: is it possible to eat such early watermelons, melons, cucumbers, corn, tomatoes, etc., that have not yet been able to ripen in the open ground? Are early vegetables and fruits dangerous? Do early watermelons and melons fall into the category of nitrate products that can cause poisoning?

Irises are spectacular, luxurious, attractive flowers that have long been firmly established in our gardens. But, as usual, in any large family there are both favored darlings and “poor relatives” deprived of attention. Thus, at one time, the surprisingly unpretentious and hardy Siberian irises turned out to be undeservedly relegated to the background - a real find for gardeners, especially in the northern regions. But now the time has come for them to be recognized.

Cabbage soup with cauliflower and potatoes is a thick and satisfying soup made from chicken broth, to which we add a little red lentils for thickness, and cumin, mustard seeds and turmeric for piquancy. The cabbage soup will turn out golden, rich, and amazingly tasty! I made this soup at the beginning of summer with new potatoes, and it turned out well. I recommend cooking the chicken broth in advance. For the broth you will need half a small chicken, garlic, carrots, onions, bay leaf, chili and a bunch of fresh parsley, spices to taste.

We sowed or planted most of the plants in the spring and it seems that in the middle of summer we can already relax. But experienced gardeners know that July is the time to plant vegetables to obtain a late harvest and the possibility of longer storage. This also applies to potatoes. It is better to use the early summer potato harvest quickly; it is not suitable for long-term storage. But the second harvest of potatoes is exactly what is needed for winter and spring use.

Petunia has occupied the first step of the hit parade of the most popular annual plants for decades. It is also valued in urban landscaping, and few private flower beds can do without this bright summer flower. This popularity has reasonable justifications - attractive appearance, variety of shapes and colors, ease of care and long-lasting abundant flowering. However, the petunias in our gardens do not always correspond to those depicted on the Internet.

Chickpeas with meat and cheese sauce - incredibly tasty! This dish is suitable for both a regular dinner with the family and a Sunday lunch with friends. It doesn’t take much time to prepare, just a little less than an hour, and the result is worth it. Fragrant meat with sweet young carrots and thick creamy sauce - what could be tastier? For the sauce, I recommend hard, spicy cheese - Parmesan, cheddar, and you can use almost any meat, it is important that it is not fatty.

Astrakhan tomatoes ripen remarkably well lying on the ground, but this experience should not be repeated in the Moscow region. Our tomatoes need support, support, garter. My neighbors use all sorts of stakes, tie-downs, loops, ready-made plant supports and mesh fencing. Each method of fixing a plant in a vertical position has its own advantages and “side effects”. I'll tell you how I place tomato bushes on trellises and what comes out of it.

While modern hybrid varieties of royal and zonal pelargoniums are universally admired, many plants from the genus Pelargonium have almost disappeared. Species pelargoniums also once adorned the windowsills of almost every home. They cannot boast of such abundant or long-lasting flowering, but they often turn out to be less capricious and much more original. The fashion for “retro” today has returned their attention. But finding plants from the “basic” pelargoniums is not easy.

Bulgur with pumpkin is an every day dish that can be easily prepared in half an hour. Bulgur is boiled separately, the cooking time depends on the size of the grains - whole and coarse grinding takes about 20 minutes, fine grinding literally a few minutes, sometimes the cereal is simply poured with boiling water, like couscous. While the cereal is cooking, prepare the pumpkin in sour cream sauce, and then combine the ingredients. If you replace melted butter with vegetable oil and sour cream with soy cream, then it can be included in the Lenten menu.

Flies are a sign of unsanitary conditions and carriers of infectious diseases that are dangerous to both people and animals. People are constantly looking for ways to get rid of unpleasant insects. In this article we will talk about the Zlobny TED brand, which specializes in fly repellents and knows a lot about them. The manufacturer has developed a specialized line of products to get rid of flying insects anywhere quickly, safely and at no extra cost.

The summer months are the time for hydrangeas to bloom. This beautiful deciduous shrub produces luxuriously fragrant flowers from June to September. Florists readily use large inflorescences for wedding decorations and bouquets. To admire the beauty of a flowering hydrangea bush in your garden, you should take care of the proper conditions for it. Unfortunately, some hydrangeas do not bloom year after year, despite the care and efforts of gardeners. We will explain why this happens in the article.

Every summer resident knows that plants need nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for full development. These are three main macronutrients, the deficiency of which significantly affects the appearance and yield of plants, and in advanced cases can lead to their death. But not everyone understands the importance of other macro- and microelements for plant health. And they are important not only in themselves, but also for the effective absorption of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Garden strawberries, or strawberries, as we used to call them, are one of the early aromatic berries that summer generously gifts us with. How happy we are about this harvest! In order for the “berry boom” to repeat every year, we need to take care of the berry bushes in the summer (after the end of fruiting). The laying of flower buds, from which ovaries will form in the spring and berries in the summer, begins approximately 30 days after the end of fruiting.

Spicy pickled watermelon is a savory appetizer for fatty meat. Watermelons and watermelon rinds have been pickled since time immemorial, but this process is labor-intensive and time-consuming. According to my recipe, you can simply prepare pickled watermelon in 10 minutes, and by the evening the spicy appetizer will be ready. Watermelon marinated with spices and chili can be stored in the refrigerator for several days. Be sure to keep the jar in the refrigerator, not only for the sake of safety - when chilled, this snack is simply licking your fingers!

Among the variety of species and hybrids of philodendrons, there are many plants, both gigantic and compact. But not a single species competes in unpretentiousness with the main modest one - the blushing philodendron. True, his modesty does not concern the appearance of the plant. Blushing stems and cuttings, huge leaves, long shoots, forming, although very large, but also a strikingly elegant silhouette, look very elegant. Philodendron blushing requires only one thing - at least minimal care.

Cities create a specific and largely unfavorable ecological situation for human life. The city's air is constantly polluted by industrial waste, car exhaust gases and dust. If we compare city air with the air atmosphere of a suburban area, it contains significantly less oxygen and has an increased number of bacteria and microbes.

The degree of atmospheric pollution depends on the following natural factors: wind direction and speed, air temperature and humidity, terrain and the nature of vegetation.

In large industrial cities, in calm weather, so-called smog, or thick fog containing a high concentration of industrial emissions, often forms. Smog often causes serious illness in people.

Solid dust particles, being suspended and interacting with water vapor, which also saturates the atmosphere, are compounds that have a harmful effect on the human respiratory organs. Heavy air dust reduces the illumination of the earth's surface and thereby reduces the amount of ultraviolet rays from the sun that are beneficial to humans.

The temperature regime in the city and the humidity of urban air are subject to greater fluctuations than in non-urban areas. This often creates uncomfortable conditions for the urban population, especially on hot or cold days.

The rapid growth of cities is increasingly characterized by individual construction methods and, as a consequence, mass development of urban and suburban areas with standard houses and buildings.

Massive construction of standard houses often creates monotony and uniformity of the architectural appearance of the city, significantly impoverishing it.

One of the most important urban planning tasks of our time is to overcome this monotony and boring while maintaining high-speed industrial construction methods, achieving an expressive architectural appearance of a modern city.

Harmonious human development is impossible without a close connection with nature. Communication with nature serves as a powerful means of cultivating beauty and understanding the laws of life. Communication with nature significantly reduces these stresses, giving relief to the human body.

The negative impact on a person of a number of unfavorable factors of urban life is significantly reduced by the skillful placement of green spaces in the city.

Green spaces in the fight against dust and gas pollution in urban air

Green spaces are of no small importance in purifying urban air from dust and gases. Dust settles on leaves, branches and trunks of trees and shrubs, and is then washed away by precipitation to the ground. The spread or movement of dust is also restrained by lawns, which retard the forward movement of dust driven by the wind from different places.

Among green spaces in the spring-summer period, the air contains 42% and in winter 37% less dust than in open areas.

In the depths of the forest at a distance of 250 m from the edge, the dust content in the air is reduced by more than 2.5 times. The dust-retaining properties of different types of trees and shrubs are not the same. Rough elm foliage and lilac leaves covered with fibers are best at retaining dust. Elm leaves retain dust approximately 5 times more than poplar foliage; lilac leaves are 3 times larger than poplar, etc.

Green spaces significantly reduce the harmful concentration of gases in the air. Thus, the concentration of nitrogen oxides emitted by industrial enterprises decreased at a distance of 1 km from the place of release to 0.7 m/m3 of air, and in the presence of green spaces to 0.13 m/m3 of air.

Harmful gases are absorbed by plants during transpiration, and particulate aerosol particles settle on the leaves, trunks and branches of plants.

It should be noted that the gas-protective role of green spaces largely depends on the degree of smoke resistance of the species themselves. In addition, leafy green spaces reduce the content of gases in the air.

Phytoncidal effect of green spaces

Some properties of volatile and non-volatile substances released by plants were studied by Professor Tokin. It turned out that these substances, called “phytoncides,” kill pathogenic bacteria harmful to humans or inhibit their development. Thus, phytoncides of fir bark kill diphtheria bacteria; poplar leaves kill the dysentery bacillus.

Conifers emit especially high amounts of phytoncides. 1 hectare of juniper releases 30 kg of volatile substances per day. Pine and spruce emit a lot of volatile substances. The air in parks contains 200 times less bacteria than the air in streets.

¤ Absorption of carbon dioxide by green spaces and release of oxygen

Green spaces absorb carbon dioxide from the air and enrich the air with oxygen. In 1 hour, 1 hectare of green space absorbs 8 liters of carbon dioxide. 1 hectare of forest releases oxygen into the air in an amount sufficient to support the life of 30 people.

Green spaces are a heat-regulating factor in the city

city atmospheric green space

Green spaces significantly influence the air temperature in the city. This is especially noticeable in hot weather, when the air temperature is much lower among green spaces than in open areas. This is because leaves are more reflective than other types of coatings. Transmitting a significant portion of radiant energy, the leaves of trees and shrubs have a certain transparency. In addition, plants evaporate large amounts of moisture, increasing air humidity.

L. B. Lunts systematized data on transparency, absorption and reflection of solar energy (% of the total amount of absorbed energy) for a number of tree shrub species.

The most effective plants are those with large leaves, which reflect a significant part of the energy without absorbing it, and thus help reduce the amount of solar radiation.

The influence of green spaces on the formation of winds

Green spaces contribute to the formation of air currents. On hot days, the heated air of urban buildings rises, and in its place comes colder air from green areas. These air currents most often occur on the outskirts of the city. On cool days, air currents do not occur. The depth of penetration of air currents into urban development depends on its nature. With dense perimeter development, air currents quickly weaken, and with free development, air currents penetrate much further into the city.

The influence of green spaces on air humidity

An important factor influencing the thermal regime in the city is air humidity.

The surface of the leaves of trees and shrubs is more than 20 times larger than the area occupied by the crown projection. When plants heat up, they evaporate a large amount of moisture into the air.

If we take the relative humidity on the street to be 100%, then in a residential green area the humidity will be 116, on the boulevard - 205, in the park - 204%.

Windproof role of green spaces

In the practice of designing green spaces, the need arises to protect urban development from unfavorable winds. In this case, protective strips of green spaces are arranged across the main wind flow. The protective role of these strips is determined by their design and location, as well as the type of development. Windproof properties are exhibited by green spaces that are already relatively small in height and have an openwork design. The degree of openwork should be at least 30-40%.

The mechanism of wind protection is that part of the air flow going over the plantings meets the air flow passing through the protective strip. When they meet, the air currents cancel each other out.

Planting green spaces with a dense structure does not justify wind protection functions, since it contributes to increased turbulence of air flow in the building area.

It is allowed to create small gaps for travel and passage, which practically do not reduce the windproof properties of green spaces.

The influence of green spaces on noise control

Green spaces located between noise sources (transport highways, railways, etc.) and residential buildings reduce noise levels by 5-10%. However, if green spaces are planted incorrectly in relation to the noise source, the opposite result is obtained. For example, when planting trees with a dense crown along the axis of a street with busy traffic, green spaces will act as a screen, reflecting sound waves towards residential buildings.

Decorative and planning role of green spaces

The decorative and planning significance of green spaces in a modern city is exceptionally great. The bright colors of flowers, the emerald green of lawns, the combination of different tones and shades of green foliage, the varied crowns of trees and shrubs enliven the city, enrich the architectural ensemble, and give people aesthetic pleasure.

Well-placed green spaces eliminate the monotony of urban development resulting from standard designs.

The combination of green spaces with urban development is especially effective when green spaces emphasize the composition and decorate uninteresting surfaces and structures.

The role of green spaces in organizing recreation for the urban population

Recently, the problem of organizing recreation for the urban population has become significantly worse, in which green spaces play a significant role. The green color of the leaves, their quiet rustling, the presence of phytoncides in the air, and the increased oxygen content in the air have a beneficial physiological effect on the human nervous system, strengthen human health and improve his performance.

Schematically, the organization of recreation for the urban population can be imagined as follows.

The intra-block recreation system is designed directly for residents of the block, groups of residential buildings in the microdistrict and includes a network of recreation areas and children's sports grounds created among the intra-block plantings.

When organizing this system, the needs of each age group of the population are taken into account. Special playgrounds with appropriate equipment are being built for toddlers and preschool children. Children's playgrounds for junior schoolchildren are similar in equipment to sports grounds. A network of sports grounds is being built for young men. Recreational areas are organized for older people.

The recreation system among urban public green spaces is designed for residents of a district or city. It provides a combination of short-term recreation in squares and boulevards with longer recreation in gardens and parks.

Recreation is most fully organized in parks, where areas for quiet and active recreation are specially allocated.

When designing individual public landscaping objects, it is necessary to take into account the presence of cultural and historical monuments, the landscape value of the landscaping object and its location in the city system.

These circumstances are of decisive importance in determining the size of a landscaping object, its compositional structure, identifying the number of visitors, organizing quiet and active recreation, as well as in designing a service network.

The recreation system in green suburban areas is designed to organize recreation for residents of the city and suburban area and provides for the use of large green areas (forests and parks) for these purposes.

Ministry of Education and Science

State educational institution of higher professional education

St. Petersburg State Mining Institute named after. G.V. Plekhanov (technical university)

Department of Geoecology

Discipline: Ecology

On the topic: The role of green spaces in the city

Saint Petersburg

introduction

1.1 Landscaping standards

1.2 Classification of green spaces in cities

CHAPTER 2. INFLUENCE OF PLANTINGS ON THERMAL REGIME

2.1 thermoregulatory role of plantings

CHAPTER 3. influence of plantings on the composition and purity of air

3.1 ROLE OF PLANTS IN THE PROCESS OF GAS EXCHANGE

3.3 PLANT VYTOCIDES

3.4 AIR IONIZATION

CHAPTER 4. THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTING IN THE COMBAT WITH CITY NOISE

conclusion

introduction

Cities create a specific and largely unfavorable ecological situation for human life. If we compare city air with the air atmosphere of a suburban area, it contains significantly less oxygen and has an increased number of bacteria and microbes.

The degree of atmospheric pollution depends on the following natural factors: wind direction and speed, air temperature and humidity, terrain and the nature of vegetation.

In large industrial cities, in calm weather, so-called smog, or thick fog containing a high concentration of industrial emissions, often forms.

The most serious negative factor for human life in urban environments is urban noise. Often the level of urban noise significantly exceeds permissible standards, which adversely affects people's health. Recently, the noise level in large cities has increased significantly, and the process of increasing noise continues. The negative impact on a person of a number of unfavorable factors of urban life is significantly reduced by the skillful placement of green spaces in the city. Green spaces absorb carbon dioxide from the air and enrich the air with oxygen. In an hour, one hectare of green space absorbs 8 liters of carbon dioxide. One hectare of forest releases enough oxygen into the air to support the life of 30 people. Green spaces significantly influence the air temperature in the city. This is especially noticeable in hot weather, when the air temperature is much lower among green spaces than in open areas. This is because leaves are more reflective than other types of coatings. Transmitting a significant portion of radiant energy, the leaves of trees and shrubs have a certain transparency. In addition, plants evaporate large amounts of moisture, increasing air humidity. The most effective plants are those with large leaves, which reflect a significant part of the energy without absorbing it, and thus help reduce the amount of solar radiation. Green spaces contribute to the formation of air currents. On hot days, the heated air of urban buildings rises, and in its place comes colder air from green areas. These air currents most often occur on the outskirts of the city. On cool days, air currents do not occur. The depth of penetration of air currents into urban development depends on its nature. With dense perimeter development, air currents quickly weaken, and with free development, air currents penetrate much further into the city. An important factor influencing the thermal regime in the city is air humidity. The surface of the leaves of trees and shrubs is more than 20 times larger than the area occupied by the crown projection. When plants heat up, they evaporate a large amount of moisture into the air.

Chapter 1. city and green spaces

1.1 Landscaping standards

When designing any city, landscaping standards are used, which are differentiated depending on the size of the city and climatic conditions. Cities with a population of more than 500 thousand people. belong to the largest cities, from 250 to 500 thousand people. - to large ones, from 100 to 250 thousand - to large cities, from 50 to 100 thousand - to medium ones and with a population of up to 50 thousand - to small cities.

In Russia, building codes and rules for urban planning and development, approved as mandatory in 1975, also provide for standards for urban green spaces (Table 1).

Area of public green space per person in cities of various sizes in square meters

Table 1

Green spaces	City dimensions
	Biggest, big and big		Average		Small		Resort
	First things first	For the estimated period	First things first	For the estimated period	First things first	For the estimated period	First things first	For the estimated period
Citywide	5	10	4	6	7	7	12	15
Residential areas	7	14	5	8	-	-	16	20
Total	12	24	9	14	7	7	28	35

Based on an analysis of the actual situation and design materials for specific objects, as well as taking into account the instructions of SNiP for the design of various urban areas (residential neighborhoods, children's and cultural institutions, industrial enterprises, city streets, etc.), differentiated by types of cities were developed standard indicators for all categories of plantings. When developing projects for a green space system for a particular city, it is recommended to clarify these standards. Thus, the norm of plantings in residential neighborhoods and microdistricts may vary depending on the proportion of buildings of different number of storeys. The area of plantings in the territories of industrial enterprises and sanitary protection zones will vary depending on the size of the territories of factories and factories located in a given city, as well as on their profile. Below, as an example, is a description of landscaping in St. Petersburg.

In 1917, the city had 1030 hectares of public plantings, of which only 150 hectares were parks, gardens and public gardens. By 1940, the area of newly created (within the development boundaries) plantings amounted to 693 hectares.

During the Great Patriotic War, a huge amount of plantings (about 400 hectares) were lost in the city and its suburbs, and parks in Pavlovsk and Petrodvorets were severely damaged. In 1945, the Moscow and Primorsky Victory Parks were founded. Primorsky Victory Park was built on the spit of Krestovsky Island. At the same time, as part of the engineering preparation of the territory, a volume of more than 5 million m 3 was hydraulically washed out. After this, 100 thousand trees and 300 thousand shrubs were planted, and planting of mature specimens was widely used. A stadium named after S. M. Kirov was built on the hill for 100 thousand people. They dug ponds with an area of 17 hectares and equipped a 1 km long beach. Large parks have been created on Dekabristov Island, in Kolpino, on Malaya Okhta, etc. The suburban forest park area of Leningrad occupies 148 thousand hectares. It consists of three parts: park, forest and sanitary. In addition to the parks of Petrodvorets and Pavlovsk, it contains Dvortsovy, Prioratsky and Menagerie (in Gatchina), Ekaterininsky, Alexandrovsky and Babolovsky (in Pushkin), a park in Lomonosov - a total of 19 parks and forest parks.

1.2 Classification of green spaces in cities

landscaping air atmosphere phytoncides ionization

The system of green public areas of the city includes parks, gardens, squares, boulevards, plantings on the streets, at administrative and public institutions.

A park is a vast territory (from 10 hectares), in which the existing natural conditions (plantings, reservoirs, relief) are reconstructed using various techniques of landscape architecture, green construction and engineering improvement and representing an independent architectural and organizational complex, where a favorable hygienic and aesthetically, an environment for recreation for the population. There are several types of parks.

The park of culture and recreation is a green area, which, in size, location in terms of the settlement and natural characteristics, provides the best conditions for recreation of the population and the organization of mass cultural, educational, sports, political and other events.

Green spaces occupy at least 70 - 80% of the total area. In addition, landscaped pedestrian paths covered with crushed stone, brick, and slabs are being laid on its territory; water supply system providing watering of at least 25% of the total area of the park; arrange external lighting and construct buildings and sites provided for by the project. In the largest cities, a network of cultural and recreational parks is usually created.

In the central park of culture and recreation of union and republican significance, a complex of cultural, educational and health-improving work is carried out. In terms of scale and content, this work is not only citywide, but also republican or union in nature. Based on the fact that each visitor must have at least 60 m2 of area, and the total number of visitors simultaneously in the park can reach 5% of the city’s population, at least 20% of the park’s area is allocated for structures with year-round operation.

The accessibility of the park is of no small importance. It is placed in such a place that from different residential areas of the city it is possible to get to the recreation park by public transport in 40 minutes.

The city-wide cultural and recreation park is the central part of the city’s park network. It is intended to carry out one of the types of cultural work. The content and scope of its activities are citywide. In terms of capacity, size and accessibility, it is similar to the central park of culture and recreation, and at least 10% of the total area of the park is allocated for structures designed for year-round operation.

A cultural and recreation park of district significance can accommodate 5% of the district’s population. It is placed in such a way that from the most remote part of the area it can be reached on foot in 30 minutes or by public transport in 15 minutes. At least 10% of the total area of the park is occupied by year-round facilities.

In a cultural and recreation park of a small city, town or regional center, a complex of cultural, educational and recreational activities is carried out. Its capacity is designed for at least 10% of the city’s population, and accessibility (distance from residential areas) corresponds to the distance covered in 20 minutes on foot or by public transport.

Chapter 2. INFLUENCE OF PLANTINGS ON THERMAL REGIME The thermoregulatory role of plantings

Studies have shown that green spaces have a significant impact on air temperature. In various regions of the country, air temperature measurements were repeatedly carried out simultaneously among plantings and among urban buildings. The results of some of these studies (during daylight hours in summer) are given in Table. 2.

table 2

These data show that the air temperature among buildings in all cases turned out to be higher than among green spaces, and the temperature difference sometimes reaches 10 - 12%. Consequently, among green spaces, temperature conditions that are more favorable for the human body are created than in open spaces. It should be taken into account that the thermal radiation of the earth’s surface warms up the surface layer of air especially strongly, i.e., precisely the layer in which a person is located.

The above observation results indicate that the air among plantings is colder than the air in adjacent areas, and cold and, therefore, heavier air tends to displace lighter warm air in spaces adjacent to the green area. Thus, the green area also has a beneficial effect on the temperature of the surrounding areas. This influence of green space is especially noticeable in calm weather.

G.V. Sheleikhovsky points out that when there is calm, the movement of colder air from a green area to an open area can reach a speed of 1 m/s, i.e., form a light wind that cools and ventilates this open area.

The temperature difference depends on the size of the green area. From the above air temperature indicators it is clear that the greatest difference is observed between the temperature in the massifs (forest, park) and in the yard.

Some studies have found that even in winter, a more favorable temperature regime is created among the plantings. Thus, observations by A. M. Izdebsky in Kyiv showed that in winter the air temperature among plantings is higher than in open spaces. This is explained by the protective effect of plantings even in a leafless state.

The characteristics of the thermal radiation of artificial and natural surfaces surrounding humans and populated areas are of great importance. N. M. Anastasyev, M. K. Kharakhinov (according to cycle I) and L. O. Mashinsky (according to cycle II) give indicators of air temperature and various types of surfaces observed on sunny days in June, July and August (Table 3)

Table 3

Object of study	Temperature in °C
I cycle
Air in the forest	24,5
Air in the city	27,5
Soil surface in the forest	20 - 27
Soil surface in a field	28 - 32
Lawn surface	22 – 24,5
Foliage	23
Cobblestone pavement	26 – 38
The pavement is asphalt	30 – 45
Outer wall surface:
wooden	19 – 31
white stone	27,5 – 34
red brick	27,5 – 34
brick covered with climbing plants	18 – 27
II cycle
Air over the paved area	28
Air over the lawn	26,8

A comparison of the given data proves that the degree of heating of air and surfaces of different types has quite significant fluctuations. Heating of surfaces reaches very high temperatures. Thus, observations have established that the soil surface temperature in Moscow reaches 52°, in Yerevan up to 65 - 70°, in Odessa up to 73°, in Tashkent up to 80°C.

Rice. Efficiency of shading the space under the crowns of mature trees in percentage: a – beautiful catalpa, 62%; b – honey locust three-spined, 55%; c – pedunculate oak, 86%; d – small-leaved linden, 94%; e – warty birch, 77%; e – green ash, 59%; g – white acacia, 50%; h – pinnate elm, 97%; and – horse chestnut, 94%; j – Norway maple, 82%.

The material environment around us reflects part of the radiant energy of the sun, and absorbs part and then returns (emits) in the form of thermal energy. The thermal radiation of various elements of the material environment is not the same either in quantitative indicators or in the duration of the radiation process. It has been established, for example, that the foliage of trees and shrubs cools very quickly after the cessation of insolation, while the radiation of heat from stone surfaces continues for several hours. Consequently, a person in a city can be simultaneously under the direct influence of sunlight and under the influence of heat emitted by his environment (walls of buildings, ground, sidewalks, roads, atmosphere). For example, a person who is after sunset on a sidewalk heated to 70° and near the wall of a building heated to 65° will receive per unit time the same amount of heat as he would receive if he were in a sunlit area. If the air temperature is about 30°, then a person’s feeling of heat will be the same as at a temperature of 35°. Research by N. N. Kalitin, G. V. Sheleikhovsky and N. V. Bobokhidze has established that various surfaces and objects reflect far not the same amount of heat. Moreover, the lower the reflectance (albedo), the more heat a given surface emits, provided that it is not transparent.

Table 4 shows the albedo indicators of some surfaces.

Table 4

These data show that the surfaces of building walls, sidewalks and pavements surrounding people in the city have a low albedo and, therefore, emit a large amount of thermal energy.

Completely different thermal radiation is observed in green spaces. Firstly, the foliage of trees and shrubs transmits a significant part of the energy, since the leaves have a certain degree of transparency; secondly, foliage reflects much more energy than the listed surfaces, and thirdly, it absorbs a certain amount of energy and emits only a very small amount of it. In table 5 indicates the amount of energy that the crowns of a number of tree and shrub species transmit and reflect.

Table 5

Trees and shrubs	Missed energy in % of received	Reflected energy as a % of received energy	Ratio of reflected to received energy (albedo), %
Birch warty	6,5	55,5	38
Siberian hawthorn	1	62	37
Summer oak	8,5	41	50,5
Horse chestnut	10	38,5	51,5
Norway maple	6	44	50
Crimean linden	5	72	23
Black alder	5	58	37
Aspen	9,5	29	61,5
Manchurian walnut	1	71	28
Hungarian lilac	5	63	32
Balsam poplar	5,5	55	39,5
Bird cherry	2	78,5	19,5
Siberian apple tree	10	36,5	53,5

The given indicators indicate different degrees of influence of individual rocks on the thermal regime. For example, aspen transmits almost 10 times more thermal energy through its foliage than Manchurian walnut or hawthorn. Along with this, the albedo of aspen is three times higher than the albedo of bird cherry.

The Central Scientific Research Institute of Urban Development received slightly different indicators during special research in Tashkent. As a result of the research, the following classification of tree crowns was proposed according to their ability to transmit direct solar radiation (in% of the received):

Table 6

Similar studies in Baku showed that crowns transmit solar energy, %:

Melia Iranian – 0.62;

Holm oak – 0.64;

Pyramid-shaped black poplar – 0.66;

White willow – 2.53;

Oriental plane tree – 2.54;

Evergreen cypress – 3.15;

White mulberry – 3.80.

These properties are of great importance when choosing species for landscaping. However, the ability of leaves of individual species to transmit direct solar radiation is not the final indicator of the value of a particular species for its use for protection against thermal energy. An additional factor is the size of the leaves, since the smaller they are, the less thermal energy is reflected by the crown of the plant. Therefore, the best effect in protecting against thermal energy will be provided by large-leaved plants with the highest albedo values of their foliage.

Plantings have a positive effect on the thermal regime of areas adjacent to the plantings. Special studies have established that the larger the green area, the more significant its influence on the thermal regime of adjacent territories (Table 7).

Table 7

Array size, ha	Temperature difference in °C at distance from the array, m
	25		50		100		150		200
	Air	Radiation	Air	Radiation	Air	Radiation	Air	Radiation	Air	Radiation

The cooling effect of green spaces is largely due to the consumption of large amounts of heat through evaporation and an increase in relative air humidity. The leaves have a temperature significantly lower than the ambient temperature. The calculation showed that on 1 hectare with 198 beech trees with 23.6 million leaves, the total foliage surface was 5.6 hectares, and 790 spruce trees also on 1 hectare had 4128 million needles with an area of 12.8 hectares. Different types of plants have the ability to reflect, absorb and transmit sun rays differently depending on the physiological structure of the leaves, structure, crown size, etc. The best effect in reducing temperature is given by trees with large leaves (chestnut, oak, large-leaved linden, maple holly, silver poplar, sycamore, etc.).

Albedo, depending on the density, arrangement of leaves and crown shape, varies in trees and shrubs within 8 - 46%. Trees with the highest albedo provide the best protection against thermal energy, and their use is of great practical importance. It should be taken into account that the albedo of the entire tree crown is 12-15% less than the albedo of individual leaves. The smaller the leaf, the less thermal energy the plant crown reflects. The albedo of coniferous trees is significantly lower than that of deciduous trees. It must be borne in mind that the leaves of the upper part of the crown are exposed to solar heating. The leaves on the tree are arranged in the form of a leaf mosaic, without shading each other. If the leaves create a continuous surface, then the reflection increases compared to a loose arrangement of leaves. Openings in the crown absorb a significant portion of the incoming energy. The foliage of trees and shrubs allows solar radiation to pass through due to the transparency of the crown. The crown transparency coefficient is defined as the ratio of the intensity of direct solar radiation under the crown to the flux of direct radiation falling on an open place (according to studies by E. S. Lakhno in the Central Republican Botanical Garden of the USSR Academy of Sciences). Aspen transmits almost 10 times more thermal energy through the foliage than Manchurian walnut or hawthorn, and at the same time, the albedo of aspen is approximately 2 times higher than the albedo of these plants. The albedo of the lawn is 20.5%. In the territory of green spaces, the radiation regime, and as a result, the air temperature, changes depending on the assortment of trees, their age, density of crown closure, and layering. For example, according to long-term average data, in a pine forest of the forest-steppe zone the soil temperature is 6 - 6.2% higher, and the trunk temperature is 4.1 - 4.3% higher than in deciduous ones. Radiation among plantings varies significantly depending on height. If we take the radiation on the surface of the crowns as 100%, then directly under the crown it is only 30%, at a height of 1 m above the soil - 25%, and on the grass cover - only 10%, creating the most favorable conditions. According to V.N. Obolensky, solar radiation is delayed by vegetation in a young oak forest by 96.8%, in a pine forest by 96%, in a mixed forest of spruce, oak and poplar by 97 - 98%, in a dense spruce forest by 99%. With a horizontal crown density of 1, less than 10% of the solar radiation entering the open area penetrates under their canopy. A closed canopy retains solar energy and prevents radiation from the soil surface. Under dense canopies, direct solar radiation in the hottest period of the day is practically not felt by humans, since it is below the household threshold (0.07 cal/cm 2 per minute of its sensation). A decrease in density by only 0.01 increases radiation, depending on the time of year and period of the day, by 5 - 10%. In the southern regions, for landscaping areas used from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m., tall plants with dense crowns are recommended, capable of shading lawns, park roads, recreation areas, sports grounds, protecting the walls of architectural and engineering facilities, etc. from overheating. a developed and high openwork crown reduces radiation and convection temperatures and, due to better ventilation, increases the influence of plants by 1.3 - 1.5 times. Under these conditions, the most favorable areas for recreation are those located on the northern slopes. Landscaping of pedestrian alleys significantly reduces the unfavorable thermal radiation of pedestrians. Creating a 5-meter green strip between the sidewalk and the roadway reduces the thermal radiation of pedestrians from the pavement by more than 2.5 times. When an asphalt-covered area and a retaining wall are irradiated by the sun, they heat up to 60 and 55 °C, respectively, and thermal radiation reaches 0.5 cal/cm2 per minute. If instead of asphalt, sand-concrete slabs are laid, and the retaining wall is covered with climbing plants, the radiation will be only 0.16 cal/cm 2 per minute. In the green areas of the middle zone and the north, where solar radiation is not so great, it is advisable to create more open, sunlit glades on the southern slopes. By placing plants taking into account the orientation of roads and alleys, the location of engineering structures and architectural objects, using coatings with optimal hygienic characteristics, using vertical gardening, you can have a significant impact on the comfort of the thermal regime. The highest air temperatures are typical for the central parts of the city with dense buildings, extensive asphalt surfaces of streets and squares. The larger the city, the greater the difference in air temperatures among buildings and in large areas of green spaces. In small areas of green spaces characteristic of the city center (squares, boulevards), in comparison with neighboring building areas, the air temperature is lower by 1 - 1.5 ° C, and the radiation temperature is 6 - 10 ° C lower. In Moscow, the air temperature in the ground layer is above lawn with direct solar irradiation is 4 - 5 °C lower than over asphalt. If in an open area the temperature difference between the surface of the lawn and asphalt was 8 - 10 ° C, then the lawn in the shade has a temperature 22 ° C lower. Even an open, unshaded lawn has a surface temperature 6°C lower than shaded asphalt. The formation of the thermal regime is influenced by the size of the green area. As a result of field observations in Moscow carried out by N. S. Krasnoshchekova in July-August under cloudless skies and air temperatures of 24 - 30 ° C, differences in air temperature were identified in open city squares and green areas of different sizes. Small areas of green space and sparse planting can reduce the air temperature not only inside the massif, but also in the surrounding area, but only slightly. Green spaces in the city have a significant impact when the area is larger than 6 hectares.

Scheme of mutual influence of plants and environment

2.2 INFLUENCE OF PLANTING ON AIR HUMIDITY

As air humidity increases, the transparency of the atmosphere decreases, and as a result, the amount of radiant solar energy reaching the earth's surface decreases. Therefore, increasing air humidity has a positive effect on a person’s sense of heat. True, at an air temperature of 37°C and with wind, very high relative humidity (close to 100%) has a negative effect on the feeling of heat. But it should be borne in mind that such indicators of temperature and humidity are exceptional phenomena. The evaporating surface of leaves of trees and shrubs, stems of grasses and flowers is 20 times or more greater than the area of soil occupied by this vegetation. Therefore, green areas increase air humidity.

V. G. Nesterov found that over the course of a year, 1 hectare of forest evaporates 1 - 3.5 million kg of moisture into the atmosphere, which amounts to 20 to 70% of atmospheric precipitation. N. M. Anastasyev and M. K. Kharakhinov provide data on relative air humidity at various points (in%):

First series of observations

Yard in the city

Second series of observations

Yard in the city

Third series of observations

From these data it is clear that relative air humidity is significantly higher among green spaces than in areas without plantings. The larger the green area, the greater the difference in humidity. L. O. Mashinsky traced how relative air humidity changes under different conditions (Table 8).

Table 8

V.A. Bodrov determined the effect on air humidity in the adjacent territory of a strip of plantings 10.5 m wide with a tree height of 15 - 17 m (Table 9).

Table 9

Observation point	Absolute humidity		Relative humidity
Observation point	mm		%	% increase compared to open steppe
Open steppe	11,3	-	48,2	____
At a distance from the strip, m:
10	12,7	12.4	54,4	12,8
50	12,9	14,2	54,8	13,7
100	12,6	11,4	53,5	11
200	12,1	7,1	51,8	7,5
350	11,7	3,5	50,5	4,8
500	11,7	3,5	50,3	4,3
650	11,2	1	50	3,5

The effect of plantings on air humidity has been verified by many studies of moisture evaporation from the surface at various distances from plantings. A direct dependence of evaporation on the height of plantings has been established, which increases air humidity at a distance 10 - 12 times greater than their height. An increase in relative air humidity is almost always (except for days with very high temperatures) perceived by humans as a decrease in temperature; at the same time, an increase in relative humidity, for example, by 16% is perceived by the human body as a decrease in air temperature by 3.5°. V.L. Mashinsky and E.G. Zalogina provide data for Moscow conditions: one hectare of plantings evaporates up to 3000 tons of moisture during the growing season, during the same period 1 m2 of lawn evaporates 500 - 700 liters of water. Every day, an adult linden evaporates 0.2 tons of moisture, a well-developed beech - up to 0.6 tons of moisture, and 1 hectare of century-old oaks - about 26 tons. Every year, green spaces evaporate 20 - 30% of the precipitation that falls on the territory they occupy. Comparing the effect of plants and water on increasing air humidity, we can confidently say that 1 hectare of full-fledged plants moisturizes and refreshes the air much better (almost 10 times) compared to a reservoir of the same area. Depending on the size and structure of green spaces, the influence of vegetation on air humidity extends to adjacent insolated open spaces and manifests itself at a distance of 15 to 20 times the height of the plants. The studies carried out allow us to conclude that in an area 500 m away from the green area, due to the influence of plants, the relative humidity can, under certain conditions, increase by 30%. Air humidity is increased even by narrow 10-meter strips of trees and shrubs, which at a distance of 500 m raise the humidity by 5 - 8% compared to the open area. If we take the relative humidity on the street to be up to 100%, then among green buildings it will be 116%, and in a large park it can reach 200% or more. By evaporating moisture, the surface of leaves and bushes heats up. It is known that up to 600 kcal of heat is required to evaporate 1 liter of water. A simple calculation shows that 1 hectare of oak grove absorbs 15,600 kcal per day. It is this process that contributes to a decrease in temperature in the lower layers of the crown and ground layer by 3 - 5 ° C (compared to the ambient temperature). The highest relative air humidity is observed in the ground layer of dense green spaces. The relative average monthly air humidity among the green spaces of the park is higher by 4 - 9%, in the park - by 3 - 5% compared to the areas of multi-storey buildings. Even small areas of intra-block greenery significantly contribute to an increase in relative air humidity. By skillfully using moisture-loving plants and using their qualities, in areas with high relative humidity (above 70%), the latter can be significantly reduced.

2.3 Impact of plantings on air mobility

Air movement (or the so-called wind regime) has a significant impact on a person’s sensation of heat, especially in conditions of overheating of the environment. Scientists have found that the most favorable wind regime for the human body is when the wind speed is in the range of 0.5 - 3 m/s. Green spaces influence the degree of air mobility in surrounding areas. The degree of air mobility also changes significantly in the green area compared to the surrounding areas. The attenuation of wind speed in a green area behind a strip of plantings has been studied by many authors. The observation results are given in table. 10.

Table 10

Authors of observations	Distance from the strip, m	Speed from initial, %
V. A. Bodrov	10	27 - 61
	50	17 - 50
	100	44 - 82
	200	71 - 94
	350	70 - 103
	500	71 - 102
	650	84 - 107
I.S. Nesterov	34	22 - 45
	55,5	48 - 56
	76,8	73 - 77
	98	78 - 81
	121,5	93
	185,6	95
	228	95 - 98

The amplitude of fluctuations in the indicators is explained by the different heights, densities and sizes of green areas or strips where observations were made. G.V. Sheleikhovsky, based on an analysis of observational materials from many authors, established the dependence of the drop in wind speed on the height of plantings at different distances from the plantings (Table 11).

Table 11

The influence of plantings on the thermal regime, air humidity and air mobility, i.e., on all the main factors that shape the microclimate, is discussed above. Based on the above materials, it can be considered scientifically substantiated that green spaces significantly contribute to the improvement of microclimatic conditions. In addition, these materials indicate the positive impact of plantings on the microclimate through their correct placement and selection of appropriate plant species.

CHAPTER 3. influence of PLANTINGS on the composition and purity of air

3.1 the role of plantings in the gas exchange process

Plantings are known to absorb carbon dioxide emitted by humans from the air and enrich the air with oxygen. This property of plantings is used to improve the composition of the air and make it healthier. Some scientists even put forward a theory of rationing the number of plantings in cities in relation to this property of plants.

According to relevant calculations, 1 hectare of plantings absorbs 8 kg of carbon dioxide in tea, which is emitted by 200 people during the same time. This gives a norm of 50 m 2 of plantings per person. But these calculations did not take into account that the carbon dioxide emitted by people is only about 10% of all carbon dioxide entering the air after the combustion of fuel and similar processes. Since the predominant part of carbon dioxide is dissipated in the atmosphere and only a small part is absorbed by plantings, it is impossible to determine the norm of green spaces based on this property of vegetation.

In general, the role of plantings in the process of gas exchange in the air basin is of enormous importance. Moreover, it turned out that different types of trees and shrubs absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the air in far different amounts.

Engineer P. T. Obydenny under the guidance of prof. A. S. Yablokov conducted one of the latest studies on the effectiveness of various types of trees in the process of gas exchange. It showed that if the efficiency of Norway spruce is taken as 100%, then, for example, the efficiency of Polish larch is 118%, Scots pine - 164%, large-leaved linden - 254%, English oak - 450% and Berlin poplar - 691%. Therefore, based on studying the effectiveness of many types of plants in the process of gas exchange, it seems possible to select a certain assortment of plantings for landscaping, taking this property into account. A mature healthy forest on an area of 1 hectare absorbs 220 - 280 kg of carbon dioxide and releases 180 - 220 kg of oxygen into the atmosphere. On average, 1 hectare of green space absorbs about 8 liters of carbon dioxide in 1 hour (this is the amount emitted by 200 people during this time). The amount of tree foliage and its condition influence the release of oxygen. A medium-sized tree can support the breathing of three people. Gas exchange rates during the growing season vary from tree to tree. If the efficiency of gas exchange in Norway spruce is taken as 1, then in larch it will be 1.18, in Scots pine - 1.64, in large-leaved linden - 2.54, in scaly oak - 4.5, in Berlin poplar - 6.91 . Knowing the intensity of photosynthesis, and therefore the efficiency of gas exchange and the amount of oxygen released by different types of plants, one should select the optimal combinations and number of trees and shrubs necessary for landscaping urban areas.

3.2 ROLE OF PLANTINGS IN THE COMBAT OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

The atmosphere of cities and other populated areas is systematically polluted by various impurities. A significant amount of smoke, ash, soot and gases are released into the air when various types of fuel are burned in industrial enterprises, in residential and public buildings, in car engines, as well as during production processes in the chemical, metallurgical, textile and other industries. Wind and vehicles lift dust-like soil particles into the air, as well as ash, soot and dust of industrial origin, settled on the roofs and walls of houses, on roads and sidewalks.

In our country, measures to protect atmospheric air are carried out on the basis of extensive research work devoted to the study of the quantitative concentration of pollutants entering the atmosphere and the range of their spread. Green spaces are of no small importance in purifying urban air from dust and gases. Dust settles on leaves, branches and trunks of trees and shrubs, and is then washed away by precipitation to the ground. The spread or movement of dust is also restrained by lawns, which retard the forward movement of dust driven by the wind from different places. In the depths of the forest at a distance of 250 m from the edge, the dust content in the air is reduced by more than 2.5 times. The dust-retaining properties of different types of trees and shrubs are not the same. Rough elm foliage and lilac leaves covered with fibers are best at retaining dust. Elm leaves retain dust approximately 5 times more than poplar foliage; lilac leaves are 3 times larger than poplar, etc. Some studies specifically studied the role of green spaces in the fight for clean air. The results of studies of the amount of dust pollution in various areas are given in table. 12.

Table 12

Based on the data presented, we can assume that the air dust content in the city is significantly higher than outside the city; among green spaces - significantly lower than in residential areas; in industrial areas of the city is much higher than in residential areas. In addition, the amount of dust varies depending on air humidity (summer and autumn) and wind speed.

V.I. Fedynsky, Ts.P. Kruglikova and T.V. Dyshko found that different tree species retain different amounts of dust with their leaves. It turned out, for example, that the dust content of birch trees is 2.6 times, and coniferous trees are 30 times greater than the dust content of aspen.

Cand. honey. Sciences V.F. Dokuchaeva found that the dust content in the air of various green areas of Moscow in relation to the dust content in the air of the Timiryazevskaya forest dacha (medium-density forest far from industry), taken as 100%, is: in the park named after. Dzerzhinsky (dense park in the suburbs, far from industry) 149%, in the Central Park of Culture and Culture named after. Gorky (sparse park in the city, close to industry) 343%, Izmailovsky Park (dense park in the suburbs, close to industry) 400%.

Even in the winter months, when trees are leafless, they are of great dust protection value. The air dust content under the trees turned out to be less than in the open area: in December by 13.6%, in January by 37.4%, in February by 18%. Over the entire autumn-winter period, the average concentration of dust in the air in an open area was 0.8 mg/m3 of air, and under trees - 0.5 mg/m3 of air, i.e. less by 37.5%.

A study of the dust-protective properties of various species showed that the dust content (in g/m 2) of the surface of elm leaves was equal to 3.39, Hungarian lilac - 1.61, small-leaved linden - 1.32, holly leaf - 1.05, balsam poplar - 0 .55.

According to N.V. Bobokhidze, one specimen of an adult tree of the following species removes dust from the air during the growing season (kg):

Elm pinnately

Rough elm

White willow, weeping form

Horse chestnut

Silver maple

Tatarian maple

Field maple

Norway maple

Ash maple

Canadian poplar

Turkestan poplar

Poplar Bole

White mulberry

Ash green

Common ash

and one specimen of a bush:

Yellow acacia, 2

Euonymus warty, 6

Common privet, 3

Red elderberry, 4

Elf angustifolia

Common siren, 6

Spiraea Van Gutta, 5

Golden currant, 4

The above research results indicate the great positive role of green spaces in the fight against dust. This is confirmed by a sharp decrease in air dust in gardens and parks compared to air dust in city streets and squares.

It is advisable to select rocks: some that clean the air from harmful gases, others from dust. The effectiveness of the dust-protective properties of plants is not the same for different species and depends on the structure of the tree and its windproof ability. Trees with rough, wrinkled, folded, hairy, sticky leaves retain dust best. Rough leaves (elm) and leaves covered with the finest fibers (lilac, bird cherry, elderberry) hold dust better than smooth leaves (maple, ash, privet). Leaves with tomentose pubescence differ little in dust retention from leaves with a wrinkled surface, but they are poorly cleaned by rain. Sticky leaves at the beginning of the growing season have high dust-retaining properties, but they are lost. In conifers, 1.5 times more dust settles per unit weight of needles than per unit weight of leaves, and the dust-proof properties are maintained all year round. Knowing the dust-protective properties of plants, varying the size of the planted area, selecting species and the required planting density, you can achieve the greatest dust-protective effect. Rains, freeing the plantings and the air basin from dust, wash it off to the surface of the earth. In the city, air dust levels are much higher than in the suburbs. The amount of dust in the air varies depending on air humidity and wind speed. Observations by V.F. Dokuchaeva show that the air dust content under trees is less than in an open area: in May by 20%, in June by 21.8%, in July by 34.1%, in August by 27.7% and in September by 38 .7%. Elm is a very good dust collector. It traps dust 6 times more intensely than smooth-leaved poplar. The vegetation of city parks and squares with an area of 1 hectare clears 10 - 20 million m3 of air from dust during the growing season. The research results take into account the great positive role of green spaces in the fight against air dust.

Quantitative indicators of air dust content, other things being equal, depend on the size of the green area and the degree of planting density. There is less dust in the air of a large park with dense plantings than in the air of an equally large park with sparse plantings.

Plantings also play a significant role in vertical ventilation. Due to the difference in the thermal regime of green and built-up areas, the air above the built-up area heats up more. This warm air is displaced by colder air coming from the green massif, which strengthens vertical air currents and promotes the movement of gases into the upper layers of the atmosphere. By alternating plantings with open areas around points of release of harmful gases, you can significantly increase the ventilation of the area in the vertical direction.

Vegetation has the ability to absorb gaseous waste from industrial production. Long-term studies of the Rostov Research Institute of the Academy of Public Utilities showed that in the air of an area protected from an industrial enterprise by a green strip of an “openwork” type, there was less pollution than in an unprotected area: sulfur dioxide by 14%, carbon monoxide by 37, phenol by 36 and dust by 23%. In the area protected by a dense green strip, there was less pollution: sulfur dioxide by 30%, carbon monoxide by 35, phenol by 29 and dust by 64%.

Dnepropetrovsk University, based on five years of observations, has established that some plants are not only resistant to toxic air pollution, but are also capable of capturing significant amounts of these pollutants from the atmosphere (without damaging the plants). Thus, the highest ailanthus, white acacia, pinnate birch, red elder, Canadian poplar, white mulberry and common privet capture sulfur compounds, and the active absorbers of phenols were: white acacia, pinnate birch, amorpha shrub, common privet and sumac.

Numerous studies have found that sulfur dioxide damages vegetation. Thus, R. A. Babayants indicates that at a distance of 2 - 2.6 km from a large chemical plant, 75 - 100% of the foliage of linden, larch, ash, birch and oak was burned, and at a distance of 2.3 km, the leaves of apple trees, willows, jasmine, poplars are damaged by 30 - 75%. At a distance of 1 - 1.6 km from a chemical plant of a different profile, the surface of the leaves of currant, hazel, rowan, linden, apple, honeysuckle, ash, birch was damaged by 25 - 65%. Therefore, the selection of plant species is very important, since not everyone reacts equally to gases.

The most gas-resistant trees and shrubs are: Pennsylvania maple, whipweed, southern hackberry, Manchurian hazel, honey locust, gooseberry (all types), common ivy, Cossack juniper, Canadian and Daurian moonseed, large-leaved poplar, gray, black (sedge), Canadian poplar, pomegranate, tall ailanthus, white acacia, fruticose amorpha, pinnately branched birch bark, common privet, white mulberry.

Trees and shrubs not resistant to gases: Norway maple, horse chestnut, common barberry, downy birch, yellow acacia, purple clematis, common ash, Manchurian ash, sea buckthorn, common spruce, common pine, elm (kozhanka), common rowan, common lilac ennobled .

Leaves are able to perform an important sanitary and hygienic role, absorbing toxic gases, accumulating harmful substances in the integumentary and then internal tissues. Some toxic substances flow out of the leaf and are localized in shoots, growing leaves, fruits, tubers, bulbs, and roots. Woody vegetation can perform these functions only under the condition that the concentration of aerosols, especially in the liquid or gas phases, does not reach limits that have a detrimental effect on their living cells.

In winter, deciduous trees are devoid of leaves. Coniferous plants, which remain green in winter, are less resistant to harmful industrial emissions. Environmental pollution with heavy metals leads to their accumulation in plants. Some plants can limit the intake, regulate the accumulation of metals at the level of the body, its individual organs, cell tissues, and regulate the movement from the roots to the stems and leaves. A certain selective ability of root absorption allows the plant to avoid excessive accumulation of metals. Tolerant species of woody plants tend to accumulate more metals in the roots than in the above-ground parts. In herbaceous plants, in some cases, a protective reaction to excess metal content manifests itself in an increase in the ratio between the root system and the above-ground part, and when optimizing nutrition, it levels out again. The main components of emissions from metallurgical enterprises are iron oxides. As you move away from the blast furnace, iron accumulation decreases at 250 - 300 m by 1.5 - 2 times, 1 km - by 3 times, 3 km - by 4 - 5 times, 7 - 10 km by 7 - 9 times.

In parks in residential areas, the concentration of lead is on average 2 times, and in a park in an industrial area it is 4-8 times higher than in a forest park 43 km from the city. The concentration of lead in street plantings is even higher - 8 - 12 times (depending on the type of plant). Among the shrubs, caragana (yellow acacia) accumulates more lead, and among deciduous trees, common linden and birch. In white acacia, the metal content increases from spring to autumn by 3.5 times, in pinnate elm - by 4-5 times. Carcinogen 3, 4 - benzopyrene is a dangerous air pollutant - it can pass from the air into the soil, and from there into plants and human food. Plants with a high ability to break down 3,4-benzopyrene are used to clean the environment from carcinogenic polycyclic hydrocarbons. Considering that green spaces, due to their retention and absorption capacity, contribute to the improvement of the environment, when selecting an assortment of plants for landscaping in technogenic regions, it is necessary to give preference to plants that have maximum absorption capacity and are resistant to emissions from a given enterprise in these natural and climatic conditions. It should be borne in mind that wide, dense massifs dampen the wind, and on the territory of industrial enterprises a situation arises that promotes the concentration of harmful gases.

3.3 PLANT PHYTOCIDES

Professor B.P. Tokin discovered in 1928 that plants produce special volatile and non-volatile substances called phytoncides, and the phytoncides of some plants (among those studied) have bactericidal properties. Phytoncides of some plants kill pathogenic bacteria, while others do not kill plants, but only retard the development of microorganisms. Research has established that the effectiveness of phytoncides of different plant species is not the same. Thus, phytoncides of fir bark kill diphtheria bacteria; poplar leaves kill the dysentery bacillus. Conifers emit especially high amounts of phytoncides. One hectare of juniper releases 30 kg of volatile substances per day. Pine and spruce emit a lot of volatile substances. The air in parks contains 200 times less bacteria than the air in streets.

Below are comparative data on the effects of phytoncides from different plants on the same simplest species of bacteria.

Table 13

However, phytoncides of some plants - blood-red hawthorn, apple berry, cinnamon rose, common raspberry, meadowsweet - did not have a noticeable effect on microorganisms. Therefore, when selecting plants for landscaping, it is necessary to take into account the phytoncidal effectiveness of various species.

Oak leaf phytoncides destroy the causative agent of dysentery, and juniper phytoncides destroy the causative agents of abdominal diseases. Crimean pine, evergreen cypress, and Himalayan cypress inhibit the growth of tuberculosis bacillus. Phytoncides of bird cherry, rowan, and juniper are used to combat harmful insects. In a pine forest that is in good condition and favorable conditions, the growth of pathogenic bacteria is 2 times less than in deciduous forests. Thuja has the ability to reduce air pollution from pathogenic microorganisms by 67%. Coniferous species are capable of releasing volatile substances per day: 1 hectare of juniper - 30 kg, pine and spruce - 20 kg, deciduous species - 2 - 3 kg. However, pine plantations are characterized by increased radiation and air temperature, low humidity, so areas of mixed coniferous and deciduous plantations will be the most favorable for recreation. Most plants exhibit maximum antibacterial activity in the summer, when the air in parks contains 200 times less bacteria than the air in the streets. When selecting plants for urban landscaping, it is necessary to take into account their bactericidal properties. Plantings should be placed on the windward side in relation to the place of residence of the person. The sanitary and hygienic effectiveness of green spaces in some cases depends on meteorological conditions. More than 500 plant species are known that have phytoncidal properties to varying degrees. Among them: white acacia, marsh rosemary, common barberry, Karelian birch, common hornbeam, pedunculate oak, common spruce, weeping willow, horse chestnut, Siberian cedar, red maple, Siberian larch, small-leaved linden, Cossack juniper, aspen, Siberian fir, eastern sycamore, perennial ryegrass, Scots pine, Japanese sophora, silver poplar, western thuja, mock orange, bird cherry, eucalyptus.

3.4 AIR IONIZATION

Ions play a significant role in improving air quality. Ions can be light or heavy. Light ones can carry negative or positive charges, heavy ones can only carry positive charges. Under favorable development conditions, plants increase the number of light negatively charged ions in the air and in the surrounding area - material carriers of electrical charges that characterize the state of air purity. Moderately increased air ionization (up to 2 - 3 thousand ions per 1 cm3) has a positive effect on human health and well-being. Vegetation affects air ionization depending on the species composition, completeness, age of plantings and some other characteristics. Mixed plantings ionize the air better. Atmospheric pollution and, as a consequence, the poor condition of vegetation lead to an increase in the amount of heavy ions harmful to human health. Scientific research has established that the electrical state of the air is of significant hygienic importance. Air ions, divided into light and heavy, affect human well-being. Moreover, both those and others come with a positive and negative charge. It is believed that the ionization of air is better in terms of hygiene, the more light ions and fewer heavy ions are contained in the air, as well as the lower the ratio of the number of negative ions to the number of positive ions (the so-called unipolarity coefficient). Corresponding measurements showed that in the forest near Kiev there were from 1020 to 1390 light ions per 1 cm 3 of air with a unipolarity coefficient from 0.93 to 1.08; in the Leningrad Botanical Garden - 701 with a coefficient of 1.08; in a residential well-maintained area of Kyiv - 930 with a coefficient of 1.02; in the area of one of the Leningrad factories - 314 with a coefficient of 1.31.

The Kiev Research Institute of Urban Planning found that there were 499 light ions in 1 cm 3 of air in a green courtyard with a unipolarity coefficient of 1.08; landscaped yard - 1014 with a coefficient of 0.93; district park - 1178 with a coefficient of 0.9; forests - from 1212 to 1285 with a coefficient from 0.92 to 1.08.

The content of light ions in the air is also affected by the species composition of plantings. Moreover, the following effectiveness of various species has been established (in descending order): Scots pine, Karelian birch, Japanese birch, poplar birch, weeping willow, mountain ash, red oak, western thuja, Hungarian spruce, Siberian larch, common spruce, plain fir, pedunculate oak , hornbeam, small-leaved linden, silver maple, red maple, black poplar, Siberian fir, common lilac, white acacia.

Consequently, the rocks that rank first on this list increase the amount of light ions to a much greater extent than the rocks that are placed at the bottom of the list.

The above research results indicate that plantings also have positive properties regarding air ionization.

chapter 4. THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTINGS IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CITY NOISE

The operation of vehicles and industrial enterprises creates noise in the city. The human hearing organs perceive sound at fluctuations from 20 to 20,000 per second and especially well at fluctuations from 500 to 4000. The unit of loudness is taken to be the decibel (dB) and the background (phone). There is a noise loudness scale in decibels with a lower limit (audibility threshold) of one and an upper limit of 140 dB (pain threshold).

According to the Research Institute of Building Physics, the average sound pressure level on the streets of Moscow, 7 m from the axis of the first lane, was, dB:

on city highways

on regional highways

on local streets

Measurements were carried out on specific streets with different traffic volumes, the results of which are given in table. 14.

Table 14

A person can tolerate noise levels of 20 - 25 dB for a long time without any significant consequences. From the above data it is clear that the noise level in cities significantly exceeds this figure. Loud, prolonged noise affects the central nervous system and human psyche. Signs of overwork and even exhaustion of the nervous system, nervousness and irritation appear. Under the influence of noise, pulse and breathing increase, blood pressure rises, and labor productivity decreases. Scientists say that noise in big cities shortens a person's life by 8 to 12 years. Noise negatively affects the human body: it causes partial or complete deafness, causes cardiovascular and mental diseases, and disrupts metabolism. Critical values of sound pressure and the maximum permissible time of its exposure to a person: a person can withstand a noise level of 85 dB (without consequences) for 8 hours, 91 dB - 4 hours, 97 dB - 2 hours, 103 dB - 1 hour, 121 dB - 7 min. At a noise level of 40 - 45 dB, sleep is disturbed in 10 - 20% of the population, at 50 dB - in 50%, and at 75 dB - in 95% of the population.

Table 15

Observation site in Moscow	Measured overall noise levels, dB						Green strip width, m	Green strip height, m	Fit type	Species composition of the strip
	plants without foliage			plants with foliage
	to the strip	behind the strip	noise reduction	to the strip	behind the strip	noise reduction
Kutuzovsky Ave.	73,9	71,6	2,3	76,7	69	7,7	10	5,5	Two rows of trees and a hedge	Linden, lilac
Red Square	78	76	2	80	74	6		8	One row of trees	Linden
Leninsky Ave.	75	69,3	5,7	77,7	66,1	11,6	36	3 - 12	Groups of trees	Deciduous trees and shrubs
Leningradsky Ave.	81,8	77,4	4,4	83	75	8	10	7 - 9	Two rows of hedges	Linden, acacia
Razumovskaya emb. (Right side)	81,8	78	3,8	73,6	65,5	8,1	20	4 - 5	Groups of trees in a hedge	Ash, poplar, maple, elm, lilac, acacia
Razumovskaya emb. (left-hand side)	81,8	78,5	3,3	73,6	66,2	7,4	20	4 - 5	Same	Same
Kremlevskaya embankment	79,8	73,4	6,4	83,4	70,2	13,2		8 - 9	Two rows of trees	Linden

What role can green spaces play in this fight?

P.I. Leushin found that the crowns of deciduous trees absorb 26% of the sound energy falling on them, and reflect and dissipate 74% of this energy. According to his observations, the noise on a street lined with tall buildings, devoid of plantings, was (at human height) 5 times greater than on the same street lined with trees along the sidewalks. This is explained by the fact that sound waves from moving vehicles are amplified due to reflection from the walls of buildings.V. A. Osin studied the results of reducing the overall noise levels from moving vehicles by various types of green spaces, shown in Table. 21. He also found that different trees and shrubs have different sound-absorbing abilities. This means that the selection of appropriate plants and their correct placement near noise sources can undoubtedly have an effect in the fight against urban noise. The results of research by other scientists are in Table. 16.

Table 16

Certain intervals are recommended between residential buildings and noise sources with and without green spaces, and these intervals vary significantly depending on the number of storeys of buildings - the higher the number of storeys, the larger the intervals should be.

Rice. Schematic diagrams of sound propagation in green spaces: a - as a result of multiple reflections, noise decays more slowly than in an open, flat area; b - an increase in the plane of perception and reflection of sound waves from a row of edges of bushes increases the noise-protective effect; c - a two-tier hedge increases the plane of perception and reflection of sound waves and provides a greater noise-protective effect; d - diagram of the organization of the most effective noise protection.

With a 5-6-story building and the presence of plantings, the interval between the building and the noise source should be 70 m, a tennis court - 15 m, a football field - 100 m, and without plantings - 110, 120 and 170 m, respectively. A comparison of these indicators indicates the great importance of plantings in the fight against noise. Sanitary and hygienic requirements for residential development determine the need to protect the population from the harmful effects of urban noise. Green spaces located between the noise source and residential buildings and recreational areas can significantly reduce noise levels. The effect increases as the plants approach the noise source; It is advisable to place the second group directly near the protected object. Sound waves, encountering leaves, pine needles, branches, tree trunks of various orientations, are scattered, reflected or absorbed. The crowns of deciduous trees absorb about 25% of the sound energy falling on them. Noise reduction by plants depends on the design, age, density of plantings and crowns, the range of trees and shrubs, the frequency composition of noise, weather, etc. If the green spaces are located incorrectly in relation to sound sources, due to the reflectivity of the foliage, the opposite effect can be obtained, i.e. i.e. increase the noise level. This can happen when planting trees with a dense crown along the axis of the street in the form of a boulevard. The best noise reduction effect is achieved by multi-tiered planting of trees with dense crowns interlocking with each other and edge rows of shrubs that completely cover the under-crown space. Strips made from plants with a high specific gravity of greenery reduce noise well (all coniferous species reduce the noise level on average by 6 - 7 dB more effectively with the same strip parameters than deciduous ones, but in urban conditions their use is complicated by their high sensitivity to environmental pollution). According to the degree of noise protection efficiency, various plantings are arranged in the following order:

Table 17

The optimal width of the noise protection strip in urban conditions is in the range of 10 - 30 m. Increasing the width of the strip does not significantly reduce noise. A 10 m wide strip should consist of at least three rows of trees. Trees planted in a checkerboard pattern (tall trees are closer to the noise source) with shrubs and undergrowth reduce the noise level by 3 - 4 dB more than plants in a row structure that have the same size and strip characteristics. The designs of highway noise protection strips are selected depending on the amount of vehicle noise. A strip of green space 30 m wide, with a density of 0.8 - 0.9, consisting of 7 - 8 rows of deciduous trees (linden, poplar, maple) 7 - 8 m high with a densely branching crown, a low trunk with shrubs in the undergrowth (privet, spirea) and a hedge 1.5 - 2 m high, can reduce the level of transport noise by up to 12 dB. The distance from the sidewalk of the highway to the houses should be at least 15 - 20 m of green area. If the location of green spaces is incorrect in relation to sound sources, due to the reflectivity of the foliage, the opposite effect can be obtained, i.e., the noise level can be increased. This can happen when planting trees with a dense crown along the axis of the street in the form of a boulevard. In this case, green spaces play the role of a screen, reflecting sound towards residential buildings. The best noise-proofing effect is achieved by a green strip formed from trees and shrubs, located on a screening earthen barrier. When the highway is located in a recess, it is advisable to plant landscaping on the upper edge of the slope. In the case of directional noise, isolated trees and shrubs can disperse it.

conclusion

The importance of green spaces in urban planning is great and varied. They play a significant role in shaping the human environment, as they have the ability to improve sanitary and hygienic conditions. Plantings reduce the force of wind, regulate thermal conditions, purify and humidify the air, which is of great health importance. Green spaces are the best environment for recreation for the population of cities and towns, for organizing various mass cultural and educational events. The creation of plantings is not only a means of improving sanitary and hygienic living conditions in individual settlements, but also one of the main methods of radically transforming the natural conditions of entire areas. Plantings occupy a prominent place in the engineering improvement of cities, since with their help traffic on highways is regulated, gully formation is combated, and land reclamation is carried out.

Green spaces play a significant role in the architecture of the city. They serve as an excellent means of enriching, and often shaping, the city’s landscape and occupy a leading place in the design of parks and gardens.

Thus, vegetation can be used in the architectural and planning design of each city for a variety of purposes. Due to their great architectural, planning and sanitary-hygienic importance, green spaces are one of the main components that form the complex of a city or town.

List of sources used

1. Gostev V.F., Yuskevich N.N. Design of gardens and parks. - M.: Stroyizdat, 1991.

2. Lunts L.B. Urban green building. – M.: Stroyizdat, 1974.

3. Gorokhov V. A. Urban green construction. - M.: Stroyizdat, 1991.

The green spaces of the city are part of a comprehensive green zone - a unified system of interconnected elements of the landscape of the city and the surrounding area, providing a comprehensive solution to the issues of landscaping and territory renewal, nature conservation and recreation and aimed at improving the working, living and leisure conditions of the population.

According to their functional purpose, green spaces are divided into three groups: 1) public use - city-wide parks of culture and recreation, district parks, city gardens, gardens of residential areas and microdistricts, boulevards, forest parks; 2) limited use - green spaces in residential areas of microdistricts and residential areas, in areas of kindergartens, schools, sports complexes, healthcare institutions, cultural, educational, administrative and other institutions, universities, technical schools, vocational schools, industrial enterprises and warehouses; 3) special purpose - plantings on the territory of sanitary protection, protective plantings along the borders of a settlement, water protection zones, landscaping of traditional burial cemeteries, etc.

The main functions of green spaces in a modern city are sanitary and hygienic, recreational, structural and planning, and decorative and artistic.

Green plants play a huge role in enriching the environment with oxygen and absorbing the resulting carbon dioxide. In 24 hours, an average-sized tree restores enough oxygen to breathe for three people. In one warm sunny day, a hectare of forest absorbs 220-280 kg of carbon dioxide from the air and releases 180-220 kg of oxygen. Different plants are capable of releasing different amounts of oxygen: during the growing season, lilac releases 1.1 kg of oxygen from the surface of foliage with an area of 1 m2, aspen - 1.0 kg, hornbeam - 0.9 kg, ash - 0.89 kg, oak - 0 .85 kg, pine - 0.81 kg, maple - 0.62 kg, small-leaved linden - 0.47 kg. Plants also differ in the efficiency of gas exchange: if the efficiency of gas exchange in spruce is taken as 100%, then for larch it will be 118, for Scots pine - 164, for large-leaved linden - 254, for pedunculate oak - 450, and for Berlin poplar - 691%.

The optimal rate of oxygen consumption is 400 kg/year per person, i.e. as much as 0.1-0.3 hectares of plantings produce it. The World Health Organization (WHO) believes that 1 citizen should have 50 m2 of urban green space and 300 m 2 suburban.

Green spaces improve the microclimate of urban areas, protect the soil, building walls, sidewalks from excessive overheating, and create “comfortable conditions” for outdoor recreation.

The main surfaces of the city, consisting of asphalt, concrete, and metal, weakly reflect the radiation energy of the sun, which is the reason for the formation of a specific urban microclimate. Plants, which have some transparency, transmit part of the radiant energy, absorb part, and reflect the rest, and the reflection of solar energy by foliage is several times higher than the reflection of solid urban surfaces.

Shade from trees and bushes protects a person from excess direct and reflected solar heat. In mid-latitudes, the surface temperature in the zone of green spaces is 12-14 °C lower than the temperature of walls and pavements. In the shade of trees on a hot day, the air temperature is 7-8 °C lower than in an open place. If on a summer day the air temperature outside is above 30 °C, then in the neighborhood park it will not exceed 22-24 °C. Even grassy lawns can reduce the air temperature: on a hot day, on a path next to a lawn, the air temperature at a person’s height is almost 2.5 0 C lower than on an asphalt pavement.

The total solar radiation under the crown of certain tree species is almost 9 times less than in open space.

The hygienic importance of green spaces is that they significantly reduce thermal radiation, so a person’s thermal sensations are closer to comfortable precisely among greenery. According to hygienists, the comfort zone is in the range of 17.2-21.7 °C.

Not only the optimal air temperature, but also its humidity has a positive effect on a person’s thermal sensations - different combinations of temperature, relative humidity and wind speed create the same perception of the thermal effect. An increase in relative air humidity is felt in most cases as a decrease in temperature; an increase in humidity by 15% is perceived by the human body as a decrease in temperature by 3.5 ° C. The refreshing effect of one tree growing in favorable conditions is equivalent to the effect of 10 room air conditioners.

An increase in relative air humidity is associated with the evaporative capacity of vegetation. A surface covered with green vegetation evaporates tens of times more moisture than one devoid of greenery. From 1 m2 of lawn, up to 200 g/h of water evaporates, and 1 hectare of forest evaporates 1-4.5 tons of moisture into the atmosphere per hour. The intensity of evaporation is regulated by physiological processes inherent in green spaces. In hot weather, in order to protect the green organism from overheating, it increases; in cold weather, it decreases. This is optimal for humans.

Changes in temperature and relative humidity occur in the immediate vicinity of urban green spaces. With isolated placement of plantings and compact urban development, changes in temperature and air humidity are observed at a distance of 70-100 m, and when combining urban and suburban plantings into a single system in combination with free development - at 200-300 m. To increase the effectiveness of the influence of green spaces on microclimate of adjacent territories, it is recommended to create green stripes in cities with a width of 75-100 m every 400-500 m.

The role of green spaces in cleaning the air of cities is enormous. By holding back air flows, plants absorb the pollutants contained in it - fine aerosols and solid particles, as well as gaseous compounds absorbed by plants or plant tissues that are not involved in metabolism. The air filtration process can be divided into two phases: retention of gases and aerosols and their interaction with plants.

The ability to deposit dust is explained by the structure of the crown and foliage of plants. When dusty air passes through this natural labyrinth, a kind of filtration occurs. A significant part of the dust lingers on the surface of foliage, branches and trunk. When precipitation occurs, it is washed away and, together with water flows, is carried into the soil and sewer network.

Coniferous plantings retain about 40 t/ha of dust per year, and deciduous plantations are capable of retaining up to 100 t/ha of dust per season. The dust collection properties of different plants are not the same: dust content of the surface of elm leaves is 3.4 g/m2, Hungarian lilac is 1.6; small-leaved linden - 1.3; Norway maple - 1.0; balsam poplar - 0.6 g/m2.

The number of particles retained on the leaf blade depends on its texture. The rough leaves of elm retain almost 6 times more dust than the smooth leaves of balsam poplar. Leaves with a rough and wrinkled surface are freed from dust faster than those with a pubescent surface. Sticky leaves and resinous needles at the beginning of the season exhibit high dust-collecting properties, which gradually decrease.

Lawns capture dust very well: the leaf surface of grass 10 cm high on a lawn with an area of 1 m 2 reaches 20 m 2. Grass retains 3-6 times more dust than bare ground, and 10 times more than wood. Even relatively small areas of plantings, occupying an insignificant part of the block, reduce the dust content of urban air on their territory in the summer by 30-40%.

Green spaces determine the aeration of urban areas. Open areas of urban areas heat up more during the day than green areas, which leads to the emergence of upward air currents and the movement of cool air to non-green areas. At night, green areas cool more slowly than bare ground and artificial surfaces, so a reverse process occurs, promoting ventilation of green areas. Vertical flows carry away dust particles and gaseous pollutants, improving the sanitary and hygienic condition of city streets.

Green spaces improve the electrohygienic properties of the atmosphere. In forest air, the degree of oxygen ionization is 2-3 times greater than in sea air or in the air over a meadow, and 5-6 times greater than in city air. The degree of ionization depends on the species composition and age of the plants.

Green spaces triple the amount of light negative ions and help reduce the amount of heavy ions. Heavy ions arise from the combination of light ions with heavy condensation nuclei. Increased condensation of heavy ions impairs visibility, negatively affects people's breathing, and causes fatigue, while light negative ions improve the functioning of the cardiovascular system. As studies conducted in Paris and its environs have shown, 1 m 3 of urban air contains 86 positive and 66 negative light ions, as well as 16,700 heavy ions, while in the suburban area there are 345 positive and 283 negative light ions and 1,600 heavy ions.

Plants such as red and English oak, Scots pine, Norway spruce, white and silver maple, common and white willow, warty birch, white acacia, Cossack juniper, mountain ash, common lilac, black and pyramidal poplar, thuja occidentalis, contribute to an increase in level of air ionization - the concentration of light ions under their crowns reaches 500 ions/ml.

Mixed coniferous-deciduous plantings, as well as many flowering plants, improve the ionic regime of atmospheric air to the greatest extent.

Many plants secrete phytoncides - volatile substances that can kill pathogenic bacteria or inhibit their development and improve the environment. Phytoncides kill tuberculosis bacillus, white and golden staphylococcus, hemolytic streptococcus, Vibrio cholerae, etc. Active sources of phytoncides are white acacia, western thuja, horse chestnut, Scots pine, and various types of oaks. One hectare of juniper plantings releases 30 kg of phytoncides per day - this amount is enough to destroy all microbes in a big city.

The degree of phytoncidity depends to a large extent on the vegetative state of the plants. The greatest antibacterial activity is observed during the period of budding and flowering. Most plants exhibit phytoncidal properties in summer, and only a few in winter. Phytoncidal activity also depends on meteorological factors - it decreases in cloudy and rainy weather and increases in warm, sunny weather.

Green spaces reduce the level of urban noise by weakening sound vibrations as they pass through branches, foliage and pine needles. Sound, entering the crown, passes, as it were, into another medium, which has much greater acoustic resistance than air, reflects and dissipates up to 74% and absorbs up to 26% of sound energy. In summer, plantings reduce noise by 7-8 dB, in winter - by 3-4 dB.

Noise reduction depends on the density of the crown, the density of the foliage, the location of the plantings in relation to the noise source and in proportion to the width of the green belt. Plant screens along highways, consisting of woody vegetation, reduce the noise level from urban transport by 4.5-5.5 dB, and shrub screens by 10 dB. A row of plantings several meters high can reduce sound by 10 dB per 1 m of bandwidth, especially if the trees have dense and tough foliage. A strip of plantings 200-250 m wide absorbs such an amount of highway noise that it is not perceived as an obstacle and is reduced to 35-45 dB or corresponds to the amount of sound that is dissipated in an unforested area at a distance of 2 km from the highway. A 100 m wide green strip reduces noise by at least 8 dB. Well-developed tree and shrub plantings about 40 m wide can reduce the noise level by 17-23 dB, a 30-meter strip with sparse planting of trees - by 8-11 dB, and small squares and sparsely planted intra-block plantings - by 4-7 dB.

Even narrow and single-row plantings significantly reduce the noise level created by transport. Maple, poplar, linden, and elm have the greatest noise-proofing ability. Mixed plantings consisting of trees and shrubs, especially with good horizontal and vertical density, have the best screening properties. Thus, a plant screen made of black pine and shrub - cotoneaster, having a height of 4.5 m and a width of 6 m, reduces the noise level by 10-15 dB.

The noise-protective effectiveness of plant screens depends on the placement of plantings. It is most advisable to place noise-protective plantings in parallel; At the same time, sounds at the edges of plantings are repeatedly reflected and diffusely scattered, which reduces the strength of the noise.

Lawns and vertical gardening also have the ability to absorb noise. Grass cover can reduce noise by 6 dB. The green mass of vines covering the walls increases their sound-absorbing capacity by 6-8 times and also helps dissipate sound energy.

Green spaces can serve as a wind barrier. A strip of trees 10 m high, located in 5 rows, can reduce the wind speed by half, and at a distance of 60 m. In residential areas, influenced by the windproof properties of the forest, a 20-30% reduction in heating costs has been noted.

Green spaces have an emotional and mental impact on humans. The natural landscape - natural or artificial - actively contributes to the restoration of strength, the restoration of the fluid balance between the body and the environment, which is disturbed due to illness, fatigue and insufficient exposure to fresh air. Nature relieves stress and calms you down. According to color theory, the calming effect of nature is the formation of two colors in it - green and blue. The peculiar soft forest lighting, the richness of colors, the aroma of flowers, the rustling of leaves, and the singing of birds are also important.

The high decorative qualities of vegetation make it possible to use it to form the architectural appearance of green areas. A skillful combination of plantings with natural components of landscapes - climate, relief, water and its artificial elements - buildings and other engineering structures, increases the artistic expressiveness of urban development. Green spaces are the material with which they create an integral architectural and landscape complex, a unified urban ensemble, and form the individual appearance of a residential area, which is especially important in the context of mass industrial construction. Urban landscaping makes it possible to create a three-dimensional composition of the city.

It is believed that pyramidal, spherical and upward-pointing crowns of plants excite a person, while oval and weeping ones calm people down. Therefore, one of the main requirements when constructing spatial compositions is the skillful use of similar crown silhouettes. It is necessary to take into account that the coarse texture of trees in groups and massifs consisting of hornbeam, beech, oak or maple has a depressing effect on a person, while a fine or medium texture (birch, larch) has a calming effect.

The aesthetic value of urban landscapes is enhanced by natural and artificial water areas. The harmonious combination of the water mirror with coastal greenery makes these corners of nature attractive to city dwellers.

Questions for self-control

7. Consequences of excessive city noise.

8. What noise levels are considered acceptable?

9. What is a city noise map?

10. List the reasons for the increased noise level. How can you reduce city noise levels?

11. What is the role of green spaces in the life of the city?

TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF THE DRAFT SCHEME OF TERRITORIAL PLANNING OF A MUNICIPAL DISTRICT, ADMINISTRATIVE (RURAL), URBAN DISTRICT

The purpose of the technical and economic assessment of territorial planning.

When drawing up a draft territorial planning scheme, established rules, norms and requirements are observed, aimed at creating better conditions for work, life and recreation of residents. Projects must satisfy the interests and needs of the economy, comply with local natural conditions, have clarity of construction, compactness, architectural integrity and completeness. The noted qualities are incorporated into the project during its development (during functional zoning, determining the planning structure, construction zoning, placement of capital construction projects, etc.). This ensures greater feasibility of design and planning solutions in general and their compliance with existing standards and the legislative framework. The results of the technical and economic assessment of the draft spatial planning scheme are carefully checked.

Types of technical and economic indicators. Technical and economic indicators for assessing the draft territorial planning scheme are divided into absolute and relative.

Absolute indicators express the number of certain specific quantities (ha, m 2, population, etc.). They characterize only this project.

Relative indicators obtained by comparing absolute indicators (for example, the percentage of street area to the total area of settlements, the area under public green spaces per resident, etc.). Using these indicators, you can compare options for the same project, as well as projects from different municipalities.

Absolute and relative indicators can be natural and cost.

A system of indicators for assessing the draft territorial planning scheme.

Population density expressed by the number of residents per 1 hectare of residential area.

Building density- the percentage ratio of the areas directly occupied by buildings to the area of the territory on which they are located. The building density in accordance with SNiP as amended in 2008 for sections of territorial zones is recommended to be taken no more than that given in table. 1.

For residential, public and business zones, building coefficients and building density coefficients are given for the territory of the block (gross), taking into account the institutions and service enterprises and garages required by calculation; parking lots for cars, green spaces, playgrounds and other amenities.

For industrial zones, the indicated coefficients are given for industrial development blocks, including one or more objects.

When calculating building density coefficients, the floor area is determined by the external dimensions of the building. Only above-ground floors, including attic floors, are taken into account. Underground floors of buildings and structures are not taken into account. An underground structure is not taken into account if the surface of the earth (above ground area) above it is used for landscaping, organizing playgrounds, parking lots and other types of improvement.

The main indicators of building density are:

development coefficient - the ratio of the area occupied by buildings and structures to the area of the site (block);

building density coefficient - the ratio of the area of all floors of buildings and structures to the area of the site (block).

Table 1 - Development density indicators

sections of territorial zones

Territorial zones	Building coefficient	Building density coefficient
Living sector:
Development of multi-apartment high-rise residential buildings	0,4	1,2
Also - reconstructable	0,6	1,6
Development of low- and medium-rise apartment buildings	0,4	0,8
Development of blocked residential buildings with adjacent land plots	0,3	0,6
Development of one- and two-apartment residential buildings with private land plots	0,2	0,4
Public and business zone:
Multifunctional development	1,0	3,0
Specialized public development	0,8	2,4
Production zone Industrial Scientific - production * Utilities and warehouse	0,8 0,6 0,6	2,4 1,0 1,8

*) excluding experimental fields and testing grounds, reserve territories and sanitary protection zones.

The boundaries of the blocks are red lines.

Regional, local urban planning standards and Rules for land use and development of municipalities may establish additional indicators characterizing the maximum permissible construction volume of buildings and structures in relation to the area of the site; the number of full floors and the permissible height of buildings and structures in specific zones, as well as other restrictions taking into account local urban planning features (the appearance of the settlement, the historical environment, the landscape).

When reconstructing existing blocks of residential, public and business areas (including the addition of floors, attics), it is necessary to provide the required volume of institutions and service enterprises for the population living in these blocks. It is allowed to take into account the service institutions available in neighboring blocks - subject to the standard radii of their accessibility (except for preschool institutions and primary schools). In the conditions of reconstruction of existing buildings, the building density may be increased, but not more than 30%, subject to sanitary, hygienic and fire safety standards.

An important technical and economic indicator characterizing the planning project is balance of territory. The territory balance shows the area for all types of its use. For a residential zone, when drawing up a plan, the total areas of residential areas are calculated separately: for the construction zone (single-story, blocked, sectional development), the area of the public territory, under streets, roads, squares, as well as areas unsuitable for development (ravines, reservoirs, etc.) .), but located within the boundaries of the populated area.

All these indicators, expressed in hectares and percentages, are entered into a special table.

In addition to these technical and economic indicators, they provide data on the population size and the provision of housing stock, etc.

The above basic technical and economic indicators can be supplemented by others: the length of the street network, the linear density of buildings, the average and maximum radii of service by cultural institutions, etc.

Indicators for assessing the layout and development of an industrial zone. IN Various production processes are carried out in the production area. Therefore, when assessing the economic feasibility of planning and developing a production area, first of all, they analyze the conditions created for the correct organization of technological processes. Then technical and economic indicators are calculated, the main of which are the balance of the territory, the building density of industrial complexes, the coefficient of use of the territory in each complex, the cost of construction and improvement.

In the balance of territory for a production zone, the area of production complexes, sanitary protection zones, areas under roads, driveways, parking areas and other territories within the production zone are calculated.

The building density is determined for each industrial complex in the same way as in a residential area.

Territory utilization coefficient is the ratio of the area usefully used in each complex (directly for development, for the construction of walking yards, platforms, paths, bordering the landscaping area) to the area occupied by the complex. The closer it is to unity, the more fully and usefully the territory of the complex is used.

A technical and economic assessment of the planning project is carried out during the design process, comparing various options. The project is finally evaluated upon completion of the design (Table 2).

Table 2 - Technical and economic assessment of the project

territorial planning of the municipality

No.	Name	Unit change	Characteristic
existing	project

	Number of settlements in Moscow Region
	Area of settlements in Moscow region	ha
	Population:
- number of residents of settlements in Moscow region;	people
- demographic characteristics:
- children under 7 years old;	%/person
- children from 7 to 15 years old;	%/person
- women over 55 years old;	%/person
- men over 60 years old;	%/person
- women from 16 to 55 years old;	%/person
- men from 16 to 60 years old;	%/person
- city-forming characteristics:
- city-forming group;	%/person
- service group;	%/person
- non-amateur group;	%/person
- population density	people/ha
	Living sector:
- number of manor residential buildings:	PC.
- area of the residential area;	ha
	m 2
- living space;	m 2
- number of blocked residential buildings:	PC.
- area of the residential area;	ha
- area under residential buildings;	m 2
- living space;	m 2
- the number of low and mid-rise multi-apartment (sectional) residential buildings;	PC.
- area of the residential area;	ha
- area under residential buildings;	m 2
- living space;	m 2
- number of multi-storey apartment buildings,	PC.
- area of the residential area;	ha
- area under residential buildings;	m 2
- living space;	m 2
- residential development coefficient;	b/r
- residential density coefficient;	b/r
- living area per person	m 2 /person
	Public and business zone:
- area of the public and business zone of the Moscow Region;	ha
- area of public centers of the Moscow Region;	ha
- the size of the central squares;	ha
- objects of public and business zone:
- administration;	PC.
- club;	PC.
- mail and others	PC.
	Production area:
- area of production zones of the Moscow Region;	ha
- location of production areas;	st.sv./m
- composition of production zones:
- cowshed, etc., production capacity, land area.	pcs/ha
	Recreational area:
- landscaping for public use;	ha
- landscaping of limited use;	ha
- landscaping for special purposes;	ha
- total green area	ha
- green area per inhabitant	m 2 /person
	Special purpose area:
- cemetery;	St. St./ha
- cattle burial ground;	St. St./ha
- household waste dump and others	St. St./ha
	Engineering and transport infrastructure zone:
- street and road system:
- streets with asphalt concrete roads;	ha
- length of roads with asphalt concrete pavement;	m
- width of roads with asphalt concrete pavement;	m
- area of roads with asphalt concrete pavement;	ha
- streets with gravel and crushed stone roads;	ha
- length of roads with gravel and crushed stone surface;	m
- width of roads with gravel and crushed stone surface;	m
- area of roads with gravel and crushed stone surface;	ha
- streets with dirt roads;	ha
- length of unpaved roads;	m
- width of unpaved roads;	m
- area of unpaved roads;	ha
- public transport stops;	pcs/ha
- intercity transport stops;	pcs/ha
- bus stations;	pcs/ha
- other transport systems:
- water supply;	Not really
- sewerage;	Not really
- heat supply;	Not really
- gasification;	Not really
- power supply;	Not really
- other
	Engineering preparation of the territory:
- drainage;	Not really
- protection against flooding;	Not really
- protection against mudflows;	Not really
- combating gully formation;	Not really
- anti-landslide works;	Not really
- organization of surface runoff;	Not really
- irrigation of the air basin;	Not really
- improvement of the banks of rivers, lakes, ravines;	Not really
- landscaping;	Not really
- environmental protection;	Not really
- prevention of fires on lands adjacent to a populated area;	Not really
- other

Self-test questions

1. The purpose and objectives of the technical and economic assessment of the draft territorial planning scheme..

2. Types of technical and economic assessment of the draft territorial planning scheme.

3. System and main technical and economic indicators of the draft territorial planning scheme.