Thus, the world can be fully understood through anthropology. Is the phrase separated by commas or not? Is it necessary to put a comma after an introductory phrase in this way at the beginning and middle of a sentence: examples. in what cases

1. Introductory words and phrases are not members of the proposal. With their help, the speaker expresses his attitude to the content of the statement (confidence or uncertainty, emotional reaction, etc.):

Example: Unfortunately, he didn't have watercolors(Soloukhin).

Introductory sentences can also perform the same function.

For example: I dare say I was loved in the house(Turgenev) - the structure is a definite personal one-part sentence; In life, do you know, there is always room for exploits(M. Gorky) - the structure is a two-part sentence; We, if you want to know, we came to demand(Gorbatov) - in structure, a conditional one-part clause.

In writing, introductory words, phrases and sentences usually separated by commas.

Classes of introductory words by meaning

Meaning	Introductory Components	Examples
1. Evaluation of what is reported in terms of reliability, etc.:
1.1. Confidence, authenticity	Of course, of course, indisputably, undoubtedly, without a doubt, certainly, really, in fact, truly, of course, naturally, truly and etc.	Undoubtedly, someone is sucking the life out of this strange girl who cries when others in her place laugh (Korolenko). The heroine of this novel, goes without saying, there was Masha (L. Tolstoy). Indeed, since my mother died... I was very rarely seen at home (Turgenev).
1.2. Uncertainty, assumption, uncertainty, assumption	Probably, it seems, as it seems, probably, in all likelihood, right, tea, obviously, perhaps, perhaps, it is visible, apparently, as it seems, it is true, maybe, it should be, it seems, I think, I believe, one must believe, I hope , in some way, in some sense, suppose, suppose, let's say, if you want, one way or another and etc.	She probably still drinks coffee and cookies in the morning.(Fadeev). Life, it seems, has not yet begun(Paustovsky). Apparently the free bread was to my liking(Mezherov). And he dreamed, perhaps, of approaching by a different route, knocking at the window with the expected guest, dear(Tvardovsky). I have a headache. Must be due to bad weather(Chekhov).
2. Different feelings:
2.1. Joy, approval	Fortunately, to happiness, to joy, to the joy, to the pleasure of someone, what is good, what is even better and etc.	Fortunately, Alekhine left the house an hour earlier and caught the ship sailing to Frankfurt(Kotov). Here, to Petya's indescribable admiration, an entire metalworking workshop has been set up on an old kitchen table(Kataev).
2.2. Regret, disapproval	Unfortunately, unfortunately, unfortunately, to the shame of someone, to regret, to annoyance, to misfortune, as if unfortunately, as if on purpose, by a sinful act, what is even worse, what is offensive, alas and etc.	Unfortunately, I must add that in the same year Pavel passed away(Turgenev).
2.3. Surprise, bewilderment	Surprisingly, amazingly, amazingly, amazingly, strangely, strangely, incomprehensibly and etc.	Naydenov, to Nagulny's amazement, in one second he shrugged off his leather jacket and sat down at the table(Sholokhov).
2.4. Fear	The hour is uneven, God forbid, whatever happens and etc.	Just look, the oar will rip out and he will be thrown into the sea(Novikov-Priboy).
2.5. General expressive nature of the utterance	In conscience, in justice, in essence, in essence, in soul, in truth, in truth, in truth, one must tell the truth, if the truth is to be told, it is funny to say, to say in honor, between us, speaking between us, there is nothing to say in vain, I confess, except jokes, actually and etc.	There were, however, some weaknesses behind him(Turgenev). I admit, I don’t really like this tree - aspen...(Turgenev). Nothing offends me more, dare I say, offends me so much, as ingratitude(Turgenev).
3. Source of message	According to someone, according to someone, in my opinion, according to you, according to someone, according to someone, according to rumors, according to a proverb, according to legend, from the point of view of someone, I remember, one can hear, they say, they say, as one can hear, as I think, as I think, as I remember, as they say, as they believe, as is known, as was pointed out, as it turned out, as they said in the old days, in my opinion and etc.	Pesotsky, they say, has apples as big as his head, and Pesotsky, they say, made his fortune from the garden(Chekhov). The calculation, in my opinion, was mathematically accurate(Paustovsky). Twenty years ago Line Lake was such a wilderness that, according to foresters, not every bird dared to fly there(Paustovsky).
4. Order of thoughts and their connections	Firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, so, therefore, therefore, thus, on the contrary, on the contrary, for example, for example, in particular, in addition, in addition, to top it all off, in addition, moreover, on the one hand, on the other hand, however, by the way, in general, in addition, therefore, the main thing, by the way, by the way, by the way and etc.	On the one hand, the darkness was saving: it hid us(Paustovsky). Forest air is healing, it lengthens life, it increases our vitality, and, finally, it turns the mechanical and sometimes difficult process of breathing into pleasure(Paustovsky). So, the next day I stood in this room behind the doors and listened as my fate was decided(Dostoevsky).
5. Assessing the style of expression, manner of speaking, ways of forming thoughts	In a word, in one word, in other words, in other words, directly speaking, roughly speaking, in fact, in fact, in short, in short, more accurately, better to say, directly to say, easier to say, so to speak, how to say, so to speak, what's called and etc.	In a word, Storeshnikov was thinking more and more strongly about getting married every day.(Chernyshevsky). In short, this is not a master in science, but a worker(Chekhov). We got up and went to push to the well, or rather, to the fountain(Garshin).
6. Assessment of the measure, the degree of what is being said; the degree of commonality of the facts stated	At least, at least, to one degree or another, to a large extent, as usual, as usual, it happens, happens, as usual, as always, as it happens, as it happens, as it happens sometimes and etc.	Talked to me at least like an army commander(Simonov). Behind the counter, as usual, Nikolai Ivanovich stood almost the entire width of the opening...(Turgenev) It happens that mine is luckier(Griboyedov).
7. Drawing the interlocutor’s attention to the message, emphasizing, emphasizing	Do you see, know, remember, understand, believe, listen, allow, imagine, imagine, can imagine, believe, imagine, admit, believe, believe, not believe, agree, notice, do me a favor, if you want to know, I remind, we remind, I repeat, I emphasize what is important, what is even more important, what is essential, what is even more significant and etc.	You were afraid, admit it, when my fellows threw a rope around your neck?(Pushkin). Imagine, our young people are already bored(Turgenev). We, if you want to know, we came to demand(Gorbatov). Where was this, please?(Pavlenko).

2. In terms of their grammatical correlation, introductory words and constructions can go back to different parts of speech and different grammatical forms:

nouns in various cases with and without prepositions;

Without a doubt, for joy, fortunately and etc.

adjectives in short form, in various cases, in the superlative degree;

Right, guilty, the main thing, in general, the most important thing, the least.

pronouns in indirect cases with prepositions;

In addition, besides, meanwhile.

adverbs in the positive or comparative degree;

Undoubtedly, of course, probably, in short, more accurately.

verbs in various forms of the indicative or imperative mood;

I think, believe me, they seemed to say, imagine, have mercy.

infinitive or combination with an infinitive;

See, know, admit, funny to say.

combinations with participles;

To tell the truth, in short, to put it roughly.

two-part sentences with a subject - a personal pronoun and a predicate - a verb with the meaning of expression of will, speaking, thought, etc.;

For as long as I can remember, I often think.

• impersonal offers;

  It seemed to her that we all remember it well.

• vaguely personal proposals.

  This is how they thought about him, how they usually talked about him.

That is why it is necessary to distinguish between introductory words and homonymous forms and constructions.

Note!

Depending on the context, the same words act either as introductory words (hence, not members of the sentence), or as members of the sentence. In order not to make a mistake, you should remember that:

A) you can ask a question to a member of a sentence;

b) the introductory word is not a member of the sentence and has one of the meanings listed above;

V) Introductory words can usually (but not always) be removed from the sentence.

Compare the sentences given in pairs:

This is true(Dostoevsky). - True, sometimes... it’s not too fun to wander along country roads (Turgenev).

During the summer, he can become attached to this weak, talkative creature, get carried away, fall in love (Chekhov). - You may have thought that I was asking you for money!(Dostoevsky).

Listen, we right went? Do you remember the place? (Kassil). - Donkey shouts: we’ll probably get along if we sit next to each other(Krylov).

In a number of cases, the criterion for distinguishing between introductory words and sentence members is the possibility of adding the word speaking.

By the way, he never came(“by the way”); You really shouldn't have come("as a matter of fact"); In short, the book is useful("in short"); To be honest, I don’t want to go back to what was said.("in truth").

When determining syntactic function and placing punctuation marks, in some cases it is necessary to take into account several conditions.

1) The word probably is introductory in the sense of “probably, apparently”:

The sisters are probably already asleep(Korolenko).

The word probably is a member of a sentence in the meaning “undoubtedly, definitely”:

If I know(How?) Maybe that I have to die, then I’ll tell you everything, everything!(Turgenev).

2) The word is finally introductory:

if it indicates a connection of thoughts, the order of their presentation (in the meaning of “and also”) completes the enumeration:

Opekushin came from the common people, first a self-taught person, then a recognized artist and, finally, an academician(Teleshov).

Often a word is finally preceded by homogeneous members of the word Firstly Secondly or on the one hand on the other hand, in relation to which the word finally ends the enumeration;

if it gives an assessment of a fact from the point of view of the speaker’s face or is used to express impatience, to strengthen, emphasize something:

Yes, finally leave!(Chekhov).

Note!

The word finally is not introductory and serves as a circumstantial meaning “at the end”, “finally”, “after everything”, “as a result of everything”.

Gave three balls every year and squandered it finally (Pushkin).

In this meaning, finally, the particle - can usually be added to the word (with an introductory word such an addition is impossible).

Wed: Finally got to the station (Finally got to the station). - You can finally turn to your father for advice(adding a particle -That impossible).

3) The distinction between the combination finally as an introductory one and as a member of a sentence is a circumstance similar in terms to the word finally.

Wed: After all, in the end, we haven’t decided anything yet! (in the end denotes not time, but the conclusion to which the speaker came as a result of a series of reasoning). - In the end agreement was reached(meaning of the circumstance “as a result of everything”).

4) The word, however, is introductory if it appears in the middle or at the end of a simple sentence:

The heat and fatigue took their toll, however.(Turgenev); How cleverly I did it, however(Chekhov).

At the beginning of a sentence (part of a complex sentence) or as a means of connecting homogeneous members, the word however has the meaning of an adversative conjunction (it can be replaced by the conjunction but), therefore a comma is placed only before this word:

However, it is desirable to know - by what witchcraft did a man gain such power over the entire neighborhood?(Nekrasov).

Note. In rare cases, however, the word is separated by a comma at the beginning of the sentence, approaching in meaning an interjection (expresses surprise, bewilderment, indignation), for example: However, what a wind!(Chekhov).

5) The word of course is usually separated by commas as an introductory word:

Fedor was still working in the rear, of course, he heard and read many times about “folk heroes”(Furmanov).

But sometimes the word of course, pronounced in a tone of confidence, conviction, takes on the meaning of an affirmative particle and is not punctuated:

Of course it's true!; Of course it is.

6) The word is indeed introductory in the sense of “yes, so, right, exactly” (usually it occupies a position at the beginning of a sentence):

Indeed, from the battery there was a view of almost the entire location of the Russian troops(L. Tolstoy).

As an adverb, it really means “really, truly, in fact” (usually it stands between the subject and the predicate):

I really just like you say(Dostoevsky).

7) A word in general is introductory if it is used in the meaning “generally speaking”:

In general, one could agree with this statement, but it is necessary to check some data; In general, I would like to know what really happened.

In other cases, the word is generally used as an adverb in different meanings:

• in the meaning of “in general”, “on the whole”:

  Pushkin is for Russian art what Lomonosov is for Russian enlightenment at all (Goncharov);

• in the meaning “always”, “at all”, “under all conditions”:

  He lights fires at all forbade it, it was dangerous(Kazakevich);

• in the meaning “in all respects”, “in relation to everything”:

  He at all looked like a weirdo(Turgenev).

  This provision also applies to the form in general.

  Wed: In general, there is nothing to be sad about(introductory word, can be replaced - generally speaking). - These are the terms generally simple process(meaning “in the end”); I made a few comments regarding various little things, but All in all praised him very much(Garshin) (meaning “as a result”).

8) Combination anyway is introductory if it has a restrictive-evaluative meaning:

Anyway, his last name was not Akundin, he came from abroad and performed for a reason (A.N. Tolstoy); This information at least in the short term, it will be difficult to check (the entire turnover is highlighted).

In the meaning “under any circumstances” this combination is not introductory:

You anyway you will be informed about the progress of the case; I was firmly convinced that anyway I'll see him at his mom's today(Dostoevsky).

9) The combination, in turn, is not distinguished as occupied if it is used in a meaning close to direct, or in the meaning “in response”, “for its part”:

He in its turn asked me(i.e. when it was his turn); The workers thanked their bosses for their help and asked to visit them more often; in turn, representatives of the patronage organization invited workers to a meeting of the theater’s artistic council.

In a figurative meaning, the combination, in turn, takes on the meaning of introduction and is punctuated:

Among newspaper genres, there are informational, analytical and artistic-journalistic genres; among the latter, in turn, the essay, feuilleton, and pamphlet stand out.

10) The combination in fact meaning “really” is not introductory. But if this combination serves to express bewilderment, indignation, indignation, etc., then it becomes introductory.

11) In particular, indicating the relationship between the parts of the statement, it is highlighted on both sides with commas:

He is interested, in particular, in the origin of individual words.

But if in particular it is part of a connecting structure (at the beginning or at the end), then it is allocated as occupied along with this structure:

Many will willingly take on this work, and in particular me; Many people will be willing to take on this work, and I in particular.

If in particular included in the design in general and in particular, then this construction is not separated by commas:

Over tea the conversation turned to housekeeping in general and in particular about gardening(Saltykov-Shchedrin).

12) The combination is mainly introductory if it serves to highlight a fact in order to express its assessment.

For example: There was a wide alley... and along it, mainly, the public was walking(Gorky) (it is impossible to form the combination “mainly for a walk”, so in this example the combination mainly is not a member of the proposal); The article should be corrected and, mainly, supplemented with fresh material (mainly meaning “the most important thing”). The combination mainly included in the connecting structure (at the beginning or at the end) is separated by commas along with it, for example: With fifty people mostly officers, crowded nearby(Pavlenko).

The combination is mainly not introductory in the meaning of “first of all”, “most of all”:

He achieved success mainly due to his hard work; What I like about him mainly is his sincerity.

13) The word main is introductory in the sense of “especially important”, “especially significant”:

You can take any topic for the story, but the main thing is that it is interesting; Details can be omitted, but the main thing is to make it entertaining(a comma cannot be placed after the conjunction a, and to enhance punctuation, a dash is placed after the introductory combination).

14) A word means is introductory if it can be replaced with introductory words therefore, it became:

People are born, get married, die; that means it’s necessary, that means it’s good(A.N. Ostrovsky); So, does that mean you can't come today?

If the word means is close in meaning to “means,” then the punctuation depends on the place it occupies in the sentence:

in the position between the subject and the predicate, it means that it serves as a means of connecting the main members of the sentence, a dash is placed before it, and no sign is placed after it:

To fight is to win;

in other cases it means that it is not separated or highlighted by any signs:

if the word means is located between a subordinate and main clause or between parts of a non-union complex sentence, then it is highlighted on both sides with commas:

If he defends his views so stubbornly, it means he feels he is right; If you didn’t save the child, then you have yourself to blame.

15) The word is the opposite meaning “in contrast to what is said or expected; on the contrary” is introductory and is separated by commas:

Instead of slowing down, he, on the contrary, stood on the box and desperately twirled his whip over his head.(Kataev).

If, on the contrary (after the conjunction and) is used as a word replacing a member of a sentence or a whole sentence, then the following punctuation is observed:

when a member of a sentence is replaced, no sign is placed before the conjunction:

In the picture, light tones turn into dark and vice versa(i.e. dark to light);

when, on the contrary, it is added to a whole sentence, a comma is placed before the conjunction:

The closer the light source, the brighter the light it emits, and vice versa(the whole sentence is replaced: The further away the light source is, the less bright the light it emits; a kind of compound sentence is formed);

when, and vice versa, it is attached to a subordinate clause, a comma is not placed before the conjunction:

This also explains why what was considered criminal in the ancient world is considered legal in the new and vice versa(Belinsky) (as if homogeneous subordinate clauses with a non-repeating conjunction are formed And: ...and why what was considered criminal in modern times was considered legal in the ancient world).

16) The combination is at least introductory if it has an evaluative-restrictive meaning, that is, it expresses the speaker’s attitude to the thought being expressed:

One person, driven by compassion, decided to at least help Akakiy Akakievich with good advice(Gogol); Vera Efimovna advised us to try to transfer her to a political position or, at least, to work as a nurse in a hospital(L. Tolstoy).

If the introductory combination is at least at the beginning of a separate phrase, then it is separated by commas along with it:

Nikolai Evgrafych knew that his wife would not return home soon, at least five o'clock! (Chekhov).

The combination is at least not separated by commas if it means “no less than”, “at least”:

From his tanned face one could conclude that he knew what smoke was, if not gunpowder, then at least tobacco(Gogol); At least I will know that I will serve in the Russian army (Bulgakov).

17) The phrase including the combination from the point of view is separated by commas if it means “in opinion”:

Choosing a place to build a cottage, from my point of view, successful.

If such a combination has the meaning “in relation”, then the rotation is not separated by commas:

I know that a crime has been committed, if you look at things from the point of view of general morality; From the point of view of novelty, the book deserves attention.

18) The word approximately is introductory in the sense of “for example” and is not introductory in the sense of “approximately”.

Wed: I'm trying to think about her("For example"), not thinking is impossible(Ostrovsky). - We are approximately("approximately") in these tones and with such conclusions they conducted a conversation(Furmanov).

19) The word is for example associated with the following punctuation:

• separated by commas as introductory:

  Nikolai Artemyevich liked to persistently argue, for example, about whether it is possible for a person to travel around the entire globe during his entire life(Turgenev);

• stands out together with the revolution, at the beginning or end of which there is:

requires a comma before itself and a colon after itself, if it is after a generalizing word before listing homogeneous members:

Some mushrooms are very poisonous, for example: toadstool, satanic mushroom, fly agaric.

Note!

Never are not introductory and the words are not separated by commas:

as if, as if, hardly, hardly, supposedly, almost, even, exactly, after all, only, certainly, just, after all, necessarily, suddenly.

3. General rules for placing punctuation marks for introductory words, combinations and sentences.

1) Basically, introductory words, phrases and sentences are separated by commas:

I admit, he didn't make a good impression on me(Turgenev); Yes, you probably saw her at that evening(Turgenev).

2) If the introductory word comes after the listing of homogeneous members and precedes the generalizing word, then only a dash (without a comma) is placed before the introductory word, and a comma after it:

Books, brochures, magazines, newspapers - in a word, all types of printed materials lay on his desk in complete disarray.

If the sentence is complex, then a comma is placed before the dash based on the general rule for separating parts of a complex sentence:

The men drank, argued and laughed - in a word, the dinner was extremely cheerful (Pushkin).

3) When two introductory words meet, a comma is placed between them:

What good, perhaps, and gets married, out of tenderness of the soul...(Dostoevsky); So, in your opinion Should everyone, without exception, engage in physical labor?(Chekhov).

Intensifying particles in introductory words are not separated from them by a comma:

This is probably true, since there are no contraindications.

4) If the introductory word is at the beginning or end of a separate phrase (isolation, clarification, explanation, accession), then it is not separated from the phrase by any sign:

The dark, stocky captain calmly sips his pipe, apparently Italian or Greek (Kataev); Among my comrades there are such poets, lyrics or what?, preachers of love for people(Bitter).

Introductory words are not separated from a separate phrase, even if they are at the very beginning or the very end of the sentence:

Apparently fearing snow drifts, the group leader canceled the climb to the top of the mountain; Leave these new arguments, unconvincing and far-fetched of course.

If the introductory word is in the middle of a separate phrase, then it is separated by commas on a general basis:

The child, apparently frightened by the horse, ran up to his mother.

Note!

It is necessary to distinguish between cases when the introductory word is at the beginning of a separate phrase, and cases when it is located between two members of the sentence.

Wed: He had information seems to have been published recently (a separate phrase, the introductory word seems to be part of it). - In his hand he held a small, it seems, technical reference book(without the introductory word there would be no punctuation mark, since the definitions small And technical heterogeneous, the introductory word refers to the second of them).

In the presence of homogeneous definitions, when doubt may arise as to which of the homogeneous members, preceding or subsequent, the introductory word located between them refers to, the second definition, together with the introductory word, can form a clarifying construction.

This information was gleaned from new seems special for thiscase compiled, directory(without an introductory word, there would be a comma between homogeneous definitions); Silence and grace reigned in this, obviously forgotten by God and people, corner of the earth(clarifying definition for the demonstrative pronoun this).

If the introductory word is at the beginning of a phrase enclosed in brackets, then it is separated by a comma:

Both messages (apparently recently received) have attracted widespread attention.

5) If there is a coordinating conjunction before the introductory word, then the punctuation will be like this. Introductory words are separated from the preceding coordinating conjunction by a comma if the introductory word can be omitted or rearranged elsewhere in the sentence without disturbing its structure (as a rule, with conjunctions and, but). If the removal or rearrangement of the introductory word is impossible, then a comma is not placed after the conjunction (usually with the conjunction a).

Wed: The entire circulation has already been printed, and the book will probably go on sale in a few days (The entire circulation has already been printed, and the book will go on sale in a few days.); This issue has already been considered several times, but, apparently, the final decision has not yet been made (This issue has already been considered several times, but a final decision has not yet been made.); It is not coal that can be used here, but rather liquid fuel (It is not coal that can be used here, but liquid fuel). - The calculations were made hastily and therefore inaccurately(impossible: The calculations were made hastily and inaccurately); Maybe everything will end well, or maybe vice versa(impossible: Maybe everything will end well, but vice versa).

Note!

A homogeneous member of a sentence that comes after introductory words and therefore, and therefore, is not isolated, that is, a comma is not placed after it.

For example: As a result, the strength of the electromagnetic field of incoming signals, and therefore the strength of reception, increases many times; This scheme, and therefore the entire project as a whole, needs to be verified.

6) After an connecting conjunction (at the beginning of an independent sentence), a comma is usually not placed, since the conjunction is closely adjacent to the introductory word that follows it:

And imagine, he still staged this performance; And I dare to assure you, the performance turned out wonderful; And what do you think, he achieved his goal; But one way or another, the decision was made.

Less often (when intonationally emphasizing introductory words or introductory sentences, when they are included in the text through a subordinating conjunction), after the connecting conjunction, a comma is placed before the introductory construction:

But, to my great chagrin, Shvabrin, usually condescending, decisively announced that my song was not good(Pushkin); And, as usual, they remembered only one good thing(Krymov).

7) Introductory words standing before the comparative phrase (with the conjunction as), the target phrase (with the conjunction so), etc., are separated from them based on the general rule:

All this seemed strange to me, as did others; The son thought for a minute, probably to collect his thoughts(usually in these cases the introductory word refers not to the previous, but to the subsequent part of the sentence).

8) Instead of a comma, a dash can be used in introductory words, phrases and sentences.

A dash is used in the following cases:

if the introductory phrase forms an incomplete construction (a word is missing that is restored from the context), then a dash is usually placed instead of one comma:

Chichikov ordered to stop for two reasons: on the one hand, to give the horses a rest, on the other, to rest and refresh himself.(Gogol) (the comma before the subordinate clause is absorbed by the dash);

a dash is placed before the introductory word as an additional sign after the comma if the introductory word stands between two parts of a complex sentence and in meaning can be attributed to either the preceding or the following part:

The dog disappeared - probably someone chased it out of the yard(the dash emphasizes that it is not “the dog probably disappeared”, but that “the dog was probably driven away”).

Sometimes an additional sign emphasizes cause-and-effect or connecting relationships between parts of a sentence:

It was difficult to verify his words - obviously, circumstances had changed a lot.

Sometimes a comma and a dash are placed before the introductory word located at the beginning of a separate phrase, and a comma after it to avoid possible ambiguity:

Since there is still time, we will call someone additional to the exam - for example, those taking it again (let's say in the meaning of “suppose”, “say”);

a dash is placed before the introductory word after a comma if the part of the sentence following the introductory word summarizes what was said in the first part:

Chichikov asked with extreme precision who the governor of the city was, who the chairman of the chamber was, who the prosecutor was - in a word, he did not miss a single significant person(Gogol);

using a dash, introductory sentences can be highlighted if they are quite common (have secondary members):

Suspect Yakov Lukich of sabotage - now it seemed to him- it wasn't easy(Sholokhov); Let the enemy leave, or - as they say in the solemn language of military regulations- letting him get away is a major nuisance for the scouts, almost a shame(Kazakevich).

The article describes how to correctly write phrases in sentences - in this way. When an adverb is highlighted with punctuation and when it is not.

Russian grammar has a number of features. There are rules that are difficult to understand or reduce to any specific sequence. These include the spelling of adverbs. They say that introductory words in sentences should be highlighted with punctuation marks, or rather with commas. But difficulties arise with writing introductory words. After all, they are not always considered as such. The phrase THUS can be either introductory or not. Let's look at this issue in more detail below.

SO: introductory word or not?

The expression can be used as an introductory phrase. In this case, THUS - does not act as a member of the sentence. These words formulate the order of presentation in the texts and the connection between words.

Example sentences:

• Thus, we were safe in the dark; it hid us from prying eyes.
• The air in the forest has healing properties due to its lack of gas pollution, so after a walk along the forest paths a person experiences improved well-being and vigor.

Should I put a comma after the introductory phrase SO at the beginning and middle of the sentence?

The introductory phrase is THUS separated by commas, less often a dash, if the phrase is a conclusion. More precisely, it summarizes everything said above in the text.

This expression is distinguished by punctuation marks both at the beginning of the phrase and in the middle. Regardless of the location of the phrase.

Examples:

• Thus, it is necessary to have a declaration for dairy products. This expression sums it up.
• We, therefore, sum it up - it is not profitable to buy products from this reseller. The phrase is a conclusion.
• Thus, she made herself equal to the others. Here the phrase acts as a consequence of some action.

Introductory phrase THUS at the beginning and middle of a sentence: examples

Examples:

• Thus, Sergei Petrovich changed his mind about going to the meeting.
• Svetlana, thus, wanted to show her “I”.
• Thus, if all reasoning is reduced to nothing, then the naked truth will remain.
• Thus, all plans for the capture were carried out.

When is THIS way introductory and when is it not?

THUS - separated by commas if the phrase is used in the meaning:

• hence
• actually.

In what cases is the phrase THIS WAY separated by commas, and in what cases is it not?

If a phrase denotes a sequence of fabrications, sums it up, it is highlighted with punctuation marks.

Examples:

• So what did you come up with?
• Thus, I think it is necessary to draw a line and draw a conclusion.
• Thus, it is harmful to drink instant coffee on an empty stomach.

If the phrase is used in the text, as a member of a sentence or in the meaning of the phrases: IN THIS WAY, LIKE THIS, then punctuation marks are not needed.

• Thus, you have achieved all your goals.
• The plants crushed in this way disappeared inside the device.
• Thus, Sergei moved the wardrobe to the other side of the room.
• Thus, the documentary evidence was refuted.

Introductory word Thus - an example of writing

It is precisely because many people forget the rules of grammar for writing introductory phrases that students make many mistakes in exams. Either they put unnecessary punctuation marks, or they completely forget to highlight introductory phrases. Thus, grades for work are reduced, and passing scores for admission to Higher Educational Institutions leave much to be desired. To prevent this from happening, you need to carefully prepare for the upcoming certification. Repeat the rules a bit.

IMPORTANT: What’s interesting is that despite everything that has been written, even these rules have exceptions. Moreover, in our time, liberties are increasingly used in the writing of many literary texts. Authors of works very often deviate from generally accepted standards and are not so strict about punctuation and even spelling.

Video: Introductory words, how to write?

8. But to understand the world, it is still necessary to involve theoretical thinking, despite the fact that the source of knowledge is nature, and the organs of knowledge are sensations.

Because for cognition, sensations and elementary mental activity alone are not enough, because consciousness needs to collect sensations, compare them with each other, make distinctions, classify, discover hidden content that does not appear in sensations, etc., that is, without theoretical thinking is indispensable.

9. However, the criterion for the truth of the work of consciousness should remain the sensory impression, which remains the task of anthropology and physiology, but not only them alone, since sensory data should be subjected to methods of collection and analysis of a higher order, that is, natural science should be involved.

Thus, on this anthropological approach, that is, through the nature and essence of man, knowledge of any object or sphere of reality is possible.

An example of Feuerbach's anthropological approach to the problem under study can be taken consideration them essence of religion:

1. Anthropology must proceed from the fact that the only reality is human sensations, and, therefore, the characters of religions, as not perceived by the senses, are a product of human imagination and nothing more.

2. Where then do religious views come from? They stem, as stated above, from the imagination of man, but man’s imagination itself is a product of his human nature, and, therefore, religion itself must also be nothing more than a product of human nature.

3. Thus, it was not gods who created people, but people created gods with their imagination inherent in human nature. Therefore, if we consider the nature of religions, then gods are what man would like to become, but cannot.

Every person strives for happiness, but reality creates many obstacles to this that a person is powerless to overcome. By creating God, man strives to eliminate the opposition between what is and what should be according to his understanding. Therefore, he endows God with power and capabilities that he himself does not possess, personifying in this his dream of overcoming insurmountable obstacles to happiness.

4. Consequently, we see in this process a dream of the realization of a person’s best aspirations, which, in turn, are the product of the best that is in his soul. Thus, Human tries to realize in God not only his best dreams, but also his best spiritual qualities, that is, he alienates This the best of himself and gives him independent strength, illusion of independence from oneself and nature.

5. But in fact, only man and nature exist, and man, as the pinnacle of nature, must realize this and, instead of alienating the best of himself into illusory divine entities, direct this best to other people. Instead of loving and worshiping some fictitious god, one should love and worship man and live according to the principle of “man to man is God.”

Basic terms

ANTHROPOLOGY- the doctrine of the essence of man.

IMAGINATION- creation of mental representations.

MATTER

FEELING –.

NATURE– the totality of all external natural conditions of human existence.

RELIGION- a worldview and a system of cults based on the existence of higher powers or entities.

PHYSIOLOGY– the science of the life of organisms.

12. The philosophy of Marxism, the main stages of its development and its most prominent representatives. Basic provisions of the materialistic understanding of history.
Social progress and its criteria.

Marxism – this is dialectical-materialist philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The significant difference between this theory and all previous teachings in philosophy is that it is a practical philosophy for use in real politics. If earlier philosophy only tried to explore, understand and explain the world, then Marxism is trying to do the same, but with the sole and main goal of changing the world.

Changing the world is understood by Marxism as a political process associated with violent, coercive actions in the social sphere. Thus, the criterion of truth in Marxism is not the practice of being, as in traditional philosophy, but namely revolutionary practice, which, with its successes in the political realities of history must confirm the theoretical calculations of Marxism.

This one itself revolutionary practice must according to Marxism be carried out by the activities of the masses, namely proletariat, the interests of which this philosophy laid in the main meaning of its main goal - changing the world.

At first Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ideologically they were in the position of Hegelian dialectics. Then, after their meeting in 1844, They jointly developed a new worldview where dialectics is combined with materialism.

Developed by them dialectical materialism considers the world and everything that exists in it as matter in its diverse manifestations. Only matter exists in the world; matter exists independently of consciousness and is in constant motion, change and development. Dialectical materialism asserts the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness. Being a property of highly organized matter, consciousness is capable of giving a correct reflection of reality, cognizing the world and finding objective truth.

From the standpoint of dialectical materialism, Marx and Engels explained not only nature, but also the history of society. From their point of view, the determining factors in the development of society are not otherworldly forces, not spiritual activity, not the consciousness of people, but the material conditions of their life, the production of material goods and the economic relations that develop on this basis.

All human history, excluding its first stage - primitive society, and its highest stage - communism, is a history of class struggle. The meaning of history is that a new, fair socio-economic formation, communism, will triumph, and this will be the end of the historical changes in society. This will happen in the foreseeable future, when capitalism will be replaced by communism as a result of the proletarian revolution, which will establish the dictatorship of the proletariat, first in developed capitalist countries, and then worldwide.

But this will only mean the end of the prehistory of humanity, since the beginning of its true history after the victory of communism is just beginning, since the content of history will consist in the transition from a class society to a classless one, to a prosperous society of property equality for all people.

However, in dialectical-materialist philosophy, historical practice is understood not as a natural, but a passive result of the necessary processes of economic relations. The fundamental idea of ​​Marxism in relation to historical practice is that it is primary in relation to the entire spiritual world and culture, that is, it is active in shaping the results of history through the purposeful activity of people and, thus, requires an active life position of each person.

The creators of Marxism believed that their philosophical teaching would change, be refined and enriched in the course of the development of science and the emergence of new factors in historical practice.

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the followers of Marx and Engels contributed to the theoretical development of Marxism: Babel, Kautsky, Lafargue, Bernstein, Plekhanov, etc. They were mainly involved in the popularization of Marxism for its dissemination and propaganda in order to prepare the proletarian revolution in economically developed countries. countries of Europe.

Significant Contribution in the further development of dialectical-materialist philosophy, already in new historical conditions contributed by V.I. Lenin, who rejected the outdated provisions of Marxism, which no longer had force in the changed world. During this period, Marxism took the form of Marxism-Leninism, which developed Further materialistic e understand e stories in the form teachings historical materialism.

Basic principles of historical materialism look like this:

1. A necessary condition for the existence of people is the production of material goods. Hence, material production is the basis of all human activity.

2.Material production is always of a social nature and always occurs in a certain social form. The social form in which the process of material production is carried out is a system of production relations.

3. There is not one, but several types of industrial relations. Thus, in history there are several types or forms of social production.

4. And therefore the question arises with renewed vigor: why does one system of economic relations dominate in one era, in another - another, in a third - a third?

5. Answer: the nature of production relations is determined by the level of development of the productive forces society. Thus, at the heart of the change in industrial relations systems, and, thereby, methods of production, lies the development of productive forces.

Marxism divides all historical forms of human civilization into five socio-economic formations:

–primitive communal,

– slaveholding,

– feudal,

– capitalist,

– communist(includes two phases - socialism and communism).

Wherein transitions of humanity from formation to formation in Marxism are considered stages of social progress.

Social progress is the progressive movement of humanity towards a higher goal, towards the ideal of good worthy of universal desire. Progress in its purely logical sense is development from the lower to the higher. But the question arises about the criteria on the basis of which one type of society could be unambiguously interpreted as more progressive in relation to another.

Since human problems are central, the criteria for progress should cover all spheres of a person’s life, including not only the progress of the reality around him, but also progress in the development of the person himself.

And since the basis of any development is the development of the production method, the criteria for progress can be considered the facts of the development of science and technology that contribute to the optimization and automation of production, that is, the criteria of scientific and technological progress (STP).

And since the results of scientific and technical progress are positive changes in the rate of economic growth, economic indicators are also criteria for social progress.

But all of the above criteria should not obscure the main problem - increasing the standard of living of workers, increasing people's well-being and improving the overall quality of life, that is, they should turn into criteria for social progress.

In addition, the list of criteria should include positive changes in a person’s spirituality, increasing his moral level, constant self-improvement, that is, criteria for spiritual progress .

Thus, in sum of the above, The criteria for social progress are: 1.Development of science and technology. 2.Growth rates of production, labor productivity. 3.The degree of human freedom from nature in everyday life. 4.The degree of human freedom from exploitation in the production process. 5.Level of democratization of public life. 6.The level of real opportunities for comprehensive human development. 7.Increasing human happiness and goodness. Basic terms

DIALECTICS– a method of philosophical cognition based on the idea of ​​self-development of the processes of reality .

DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM – Marxist teaching about the laws of development of the world, based on the principle of the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness.

DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT- the power of the working class, established as a result of the revolution, and declaring the right to use force to suppress the opposition of other classes to this.

HISTORICAL MATERIALISM– Marxist doctrine about the laws of historical development of society.

CAPITALISM– a society in which the main property is industrial and financial capital.

CLASSES ( Marxism ) - large groups of people who differ in the ways of obtaining a share of social wealth and the size of this share.

COMMUNISM- a classless formation replacing capitalism, based on public ownership of the means of production.

CRITERION- a sign by which something is considered true.

MARXISM– a materialist system of philosophical, economic and socio-political views of Marx and Engels.

MATERIALISM – a movement of philosophy where matter is primary and consciousness is secondary.

MATTER- that which the world materially consists of.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS– progressive development of theoretical scientific knowledge, characterized by effective practical implementation in technology.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC FORMATION- a specific, historically established type of society.

SOCIAL PROGRESS – gradual cultural and social development of humanity.

SOCIETY– a system of relationships and conditions that unites people into sustainable coexistence.

PRIMITIVE COMMUNAL STORY- a classless human society before the advent of private property and the state.

POLICY - activities related to the processes of obtaining power, exercising power or influencing power.

PROGRESS– development from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect, from simple to more complex in its organization.

LABOR PRODUCTIVITY – the amount of material product created per unit of time.

PRODUCTIVE FORCES – tools, technologies, transport, premises, objects of labor, etc. used in production, and people as carriers of knowledge, skills, skills, and production experience.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS – relationships between people in the production process.

MATERIAL PRODUCTION- the process of creating material wealth.

PROLETARIAT- a hired worker in a capitalist society who sells his labor.

PROPAGANDA– dissemination of ideas to form certain political views among the masses.

SLAVE OWNERSHIP- a society in which slaves are the main economic property.

REVOLUTION- a complete and sudden radical revolution in the state and social structure.

PRODUCTION METHOD – historically established way of obtaining material wealth.

FEUDALAL STORY- a society in which the property that determines social position and influence on power is the land and the people attached to it.

13. Characteristics of the philosophy of positivism. The main stages of its development, the most prominent representatives. Emerging in the 30-40s of the 19th century in France, the philosophical school of positivism set a task and proposed a method for obtaining positive(good, correct) scientific knowledge about the world. The essence this method consisted is to abandon traditional philosophy, as a means of knowledge, and create a new philosophy, which they called “positive synthetic philosophy.” According to its purpose, this synthetic philosophy was supposed to collect and generalize into a single system all the achievements of individual sciences of the natural history type. The founder of positivism and the developer of its fundamental provisions was Auguste KONT, which declared the following: 1. Modern knowledge is in a critical state of anarchy, because the knowledge achieved by the natural and social sciences is fragmented, controversial, contradictory and does not constitute a single system of clearly understood data. All this is the result of the fact that both theology (theology) and traditional philosophy (metaphysics) failed to cope with the task of combining the body of scientific knowledge into a single and scientifically reliable system. But they couldn't handle it because they themselves (theology and metaphysics) do not have the character of reliable scientific disciplines.2. Thus, since theology and traditional philosophy turned out to be practically useless, they should refuse, and instead create a new system for combining scientific knowledge, which, on the one hand, would retain the comprehensive character of theology and philosophy, but, on the other hand, would acquire the character of an exact science. Thus, this new system of unifying scientific knowledge should be, on the one hand, philosophy, but, on the other side - exact science. This is its main difference from ordinary speculative philosophy, and this difference is emphasized by its name - “positive philosophy”. From the name it follows that this is a philosophy that gives positive (correct) knowledge, in contrast to traditional philosophy, which does not give correct knowledge.3 . In order for the new positive philosophy to have the character of an exact science, it should be based only on scientific facts, because only scientific facts are positive data. In accordance with this requirement, positive philosophy must completely abandon speculative judgments using metaphysical categories that are not tied to specific practical processes and phenomena. Consequently, positive philosophy should not have any of its own content at all, because the own content of any philosophy stems from theoretical reasoning and is not strictly scientific. Consequently, the entire content of positive philosophy, if we want to make it scientific, must come to it only from science and be formed only by the concrete results of the achievements of individual special sciences. Thus, we can now determine the subject of study of the new positive philosophy – achievements of special sciences . 4. However the task of the new positive philosophy is is not simply to study the achievements of special sciences, but is to bring together individual results these sciences into an integral scientific system of knowledge That is, in this case we are talking about a synthesis of the achievements of individual sciences, which positive philosophy should produce, and, thus, positive philosophy in its tasks is not just scientific, but also synthetic philosophy.5. However, to synthesize the achievements of individual sciences into a single scientifically reliable system of knowledge, a thorough analysis of the content of these scientific achievements will be required. That is, a situation will arise when something else must be added to the scientific content of positive synthetic philosophy that will jeopardize its scientific character. And here’s why: the scientific nature of the basic content of positive synthetic philosophy is formed by itself from the fact that only and only the results of scientific work fall into this content. But the scientific nature of the analysis of these results is no longer ensured by anything, since traditional philosophical analysis suffers from abstractness and freedom to obtain conclusions that are meaningless from a scientific point of view. Therefore, if positive philosophy wants to differ from traditional philosophy precisely in that it is also a philosophy, and exact science immediately, then, in accordance with this, it must narrow the methods of its work to the use of only scientific methods of analysis, and completely abandon any methods of analysis adopted in traditional philosophy.6. Thus, synthetic philosophy should deal only with the synthesis of specific achievements of individual sciences, and not to deal with any abstract problems, such as, for example: materialism or idealism, true and not true being, the causes and essence of phenomena, the general and the individual, etc. Instead of these useless attempts to explain the world, synthetic philosophy should only be concerned with establishing connections between individual sciences. To do this, it must: – meaningfully explore their achievements, – make a final decision about their reliability, – evaluate their practical significance and – determine their place in the generalized scientific picture of the world .7. At the same time, it is important that science itself, in turn, does not try to make claims to reveal the causes of world phenomena or claim to penetrate into their essence. Science should only describe phenomena neutrally, analyze the statistics of their recurrence and formulate laws on this basis. That is, science should not set the task of explaining “why” this or that observed phenomenon occurs, since the only task of science is to describe “how” this phenomenon occurs. And it follows from this that The main method of positive scientific knowledge is the phenomenological method, that is, a method in which the results of scientific observations or experiments are only descriptively summarized without any attempts to interpret or explain them. And the only accessible object of scientific knowledge, thus, can only be a phenomenon (phenomenon) that is accessible to real experience from observation or experiment. With the concept of positivism, Comte set a trend towards the separation of philosophical and scientific methods of knowledge, identified the problem of the specifics of scientific knowledge, and thereby laid the foundations of the philosophy of science. Subsequently, John Mill and Herbert Spencer adhered to the positions of positivism, although they diverged significantly from it in details. JOHN MILL tried to develop a unified methodological basis for all sciences: 1. Since all our knowledge stems from experience, and experience is based on sensations, the basis of positive philosophy should be psychology, which is best versed in human sensations. Thus, the subject of positive philosophy is human psychology, since it is psychology that must find and understand the laws , according to which feelings arise and are grouped. After all, it is from these feelings that empirical sensations (experiences) are formed, on the basis of which scientific ideas and concepts arise. As a result, the task of psychology should be reduced to determining the reality of our scientific ideas and concepts. After all, if some idea or some concept does not stem from sensory experience consistent with real facts, then this idea or concept is false and should not constitute scientific knowledge.2. Thus, psychology must, for science, sift out real knowledge from unreliable knowledge, since it is psychology that is able to determine the correspondence of our sensations to real experience. However, further, at the next stage in scientific knowledge, it will be necessary to reduce the knowledge obtained by sensory experience to scientific concepts, which for psychology is no longer within power. Here, at this stage of scientific knowledge, the mind should be engaged in the formation of scientific concepts from sensory experience. And when the mind begins to form scientific concepts from sensory experience, it will need a certain theory of evidence, which, based on logic, could establish clear and undoubted rules for it to distinguish between true and false conclusions drawn from experience.3. As such a theory of evidence, induction is proposed, based on four rules-methods, allowing us to determine the true cause of a particular phenomenon in full agreement with real experience: I. Similarity method, which works as follows: suppose that we observe the constant occurrence of phenomenon d and want to know the true cause of this occurrence. We also know from observation that d always appeared after three different antecedents: ABC, BMT and POB. It is absolutely clear to us that the reason for the appearance of d is part of all three circumstances preceding the occurrence of d. But where exactly and what exactly? These three circumstances preceding the appearance of d are complex in composition and contain various elements: A, B, C, M, T, P and O. Consequently, the cause of d can be any of these elements. So which one? It is easy to notice that the external similarity of all previous circumstances is that they all cause the appearance of d, and the internal similarity of their structures (ABC, BMT and POB) is the presence of element B in each of them. Therefore, the initially reliable and immediately indisputably true inference here there will be a position that B is certainly the cause of d, since B is a sign of the similarity of all three circumstances preceding the appearance of d. If there is ABC, then d appears. If there is BMT, then d appears. If there is a POB, then d appears Therefore, it is B that is precisely the cause of the appearance of d II. Difference method, which works as follows: suppose we notice that after some circumstances the phenomenon d appears, but after others it does not appear. So, for example, if circumstances ABCM arise, then d always appears after them, and if circumstances ABC arise, then d never appears after them. It is easy to see that observations gave us two different situations - ABCM and ABC, one of which contains the cause of the appearance of d (ABCM), and the other does not contain (ABC). The difference in the external consequences of these situations (the appearance or non-appearance of d) is expressed by the difference in their internal structure - the presence or absence of the element M in their composition, and, therefore, the conclusion that the reason for the appearance of d is M will be completely true. If there is ABCM, then d appears If ABC is present, but M is absent, then d does not appear Therefore, M is the cause of d III. Concomitant Change Method, which works as follows: let us assume that we know from observations that the circumstance ABC always causes the appearance of d. Further, from observational experience, we notice that phenomenon d periodically passes into its various altered states: d1, d2 and d3. What is the reason for these changes d? Based on observations, we notice that the changed state d1 is always preceded by a change in the circumstance ABC to the state ABC1; the changed state d2 is preceded by a change in the circumstance ABC into the state ABC2, and, accordingly, for d3 - a change from ABC into the state ABC3. There is a situation when various changed states d are accompanied by corresponding changes in element C. Consequently, the cause of changes in d are changes in C. If there is ABC, then d eventually appears. If ABC1 is added, then d changes to d1. If ABC2 is added, then d changes to d2. If ABC3 is added, then d changes to d3 Therefore, changes in C cause changes in d IV. Residual method, which works like this: Let's say we have the observable fact that the circumstance ABC always causes duz to occur. From the experience of past observations we know that the cause of d is always A, and the cause of u is always B. Therefore, for z to appear there must be something else besides A and B, since z is not caused by them, since they cause themselves, respectively, only d and u. Thus, the absolutely indisputable conclusion here should be that for z to appear in reality, there must also exist a certain C, which is the undoubted reason for its occurrence. A is always the cause of d B is always the reason for the appearance of u Therefore, if there is duz, then its cause must be ABC, since C is necessary for the appearance of z. Thus, Mill believed, this system can become the basis for a unified methodology of the sciences, ensuring the receipt of reliable scientific knowledge stemming from reliable experience. HERBERT SPENCER proceeded from the fact that: 1. Science is not capable of providing reliable knowledge, since scientific knowledge is obtained from experience, and experience stems from human physical senses . And it turns out that:– every experience is limited by the nature of man's physical senses, and there is no reason to say that the character of these feelings is capable of conveying the characteristics of reality as they really are. That is, what the physical senses are capable of is what we get from experience, and not at all what actually exists in reality; – every experience is limited by the composition of a person’s physical senses, and there is no reason to assume that the composition of these feelings fully reveals all aspects of reality. That is, what the physical senses are capable of perceiving is what we find in reality, and there is no reason to say that we actually find everything that is there. Thus, any knowledge about the experiential world is always determined not at all by what is actually a “thing in itself”, and is determined only by how and what sensations the sensory appearance of this thing creates for us.2. But philosophy is also incapable of providing reliable knowledge, since philosophy differs from science not qualitatively, but only quantitatively After all, the only difference between philosophy and science is the ability to a higher degree of generalization of scientific data and the ability to derive laws from them. But this does not change anything qualitatively, since scientific data are obtained from experience and, therefore, they are unreliable from the beginning.3. Thus, recognizing that both philosophy and science give us dubious knowledge only about some part of reality, we must also admit that the world for humans is divided into two realities: – The unknowable, that is, the essence of things, inaccessible to either science or philosophy; – The knowable, that is, the phenomena of things given to us in our sensations.4. Now let's see how the Knowable is given to us. It is given to us in the sensations of the physical senses, but it should immediately be noted that these are not isolated sensations, but a certain interconnected complex of sensations. In addition, this complex of sensations represents a continuous stream of perceptions, that is, an absolutely continuous stream of sensations that forms for us the Cognizable. But, if there is a certain continuous stream of perception of the Cognizable, then, like any stream, this stream must also have a certain source from which it flows. But we don't see any source we see only the Known, which continuously appears to us in the complex of our sensations.So from what does the Knowable arise? The knowable for us stems from the Unknowable, because:- firstly, if this source is unknown to us and we do not see it, then, naturally, it is not cognizable by us, and, therefore, the Cognizable stems from the Uncognizable; - secondly, the Cognizable is real, since our sensations are real. No matter how incomplete or doubtful our sensations are, they are real, and therefore, let us emphasize once again, the Cognizable is real. And since the Knowable is real, the source of its origin must also be reality. And in the world, as we defined above, there are only two realities - the Knowable and the Unknowable. Thus, if we have a real Cognizable, then its real source, if it is unknown, can only be the Uncognizable, because there is no third reality for this at all. 5. Thus, if the Cognizable (given in sensations) began and continuously unfolds from the Uncognizable, then the Uncognizable is the cause of the Cognizable and, therefore, everything that we can know is only a consequence of some Uncognizable Cause, that is, knowledge not about the essence itself things, but only about their phenomena. And therefore The task of the positive sciences is to answer the question: “How does this world work?” but never try to answer the question: “Why does the world work this way?” To answer the question “why the world works this way,” one must cognize the Unknowable, which neither science nor philosophy can ever do. Spencer created a theoretical basis for the possibility of merging scientific and religious worldviews, since, as a result of his reasoning, religion and science should methodologically converge on the recognition in the world of a certain Unknowable Cause initial for this world. Then came second historical form of positivism – MAHISM(founder Ernst Mach) and EMPIRIOCRITICISM(founder Richard Avenarius). At the stage of Machism and empirio-criticism The central task of positivism was the creation of a “purely descriptive science.” This was supposed to be achieved in the following areas: 1. First, to create a purely descriptive science one must exclude from the tasks of philosophy all problems that are too metaphysical in nature, that is, too detached from concrete experience. These are problems such as the nature of knowledge, the interaction of subject and object, the meaning and nature of the categories “thing”, “substance”, “cause”, problems of the relationship between the spiritual and the natural, etc.2. Secondly, to create a purely descriptive science, one should orient oneself to the fact that the subject of philosophy, that is, the object of its study, should not be the construction of a synthesis from the conclusions of all sciences, but theory of scientific knowledge based on the principle of “economy of thinking.” What does this mean? This means that human nature contains a purely biological irritation to a situation of some kind of ignorance or to the presence of something unknown. There is a certain biological need in a person to satisfy his curiosity or to determine the purpose and essence of something that he does not know about, or does not know enough about. It is precisely within the limits of biological impulses that the mind should remain when comprehending scientific facts. This means that when describing the data of scientific experience, the intellect should expend a minimum of effort for theorizing, remaining strictly within the framework of the tasks of the biological desire to adapt to a new fact, calm biological excitation and nothing more. 3. What does the principle of “economy of thinking” give us? The principle of economy of thinking is the basis for the general task of obtaining positive scientific knowledge - to limit science to descriptive functions with a complete rejection of any explanatory functions.4. Thus , positive scientific knowledge must completely do without categories not only divorced from experience (too metaphysical), but also without categories designed to explain experience (at least somewhat metaphysical), thanks to which it can develop experimental-natural knowledge about the world without such speculative theoretical concepts such as “causality”, “material”, “ideal”, “substance”, “structure”, etc. The fundamental similarity of both forms of positivism lies in the desire to deprive science of explanatory functions and to prove the unsuitability of the tasks and methods of traditional philosophy for positive scientific knowledge. However, the second form of positivism, empirio-criticism, changed the subject of positive philosophy, focusing it not on the synthesis of the achievements of individual sciences, but on the theory of scientific knowledge, which was the beginning of the formation of the philosophy of science. The third stage in the development of positivism - neopositivism - began in the 20s of the 20th century. and continues to this day. Neopositivism is sometimes called analytical philosophy (See ticket 15.) or logical positivism, since its distinctive feature is the use of the apparatus of mathematical logic. Basic terms

ABSTRACT– an ideal model of a phenomenon or group of phenomena, not individually associated with any of the facts of the objective world.

ANALYSIS(general concept) – mental decomposition of the whole into its component parts.

THEOLOGY – system of theoretical knowledge about God.

THING IN ITSELF – a thing that exists in its natural form without a mental image of itself.

INDUCTION– the process of cognition by the method of movement from particular data to a generalizing conclusion .

MAHISM – a philosophical system that, as the basis of positive knowledge, puts forward the principle of economy of thinking by excluding from philosophy the tasks of theoretical explanation of the phenomena of experience.

METAPHYSICS- a method of philosophical knowledge, based on the assumption of the principles of all things, inaccessible to sensory perception and determining the processes of development of reality.

METHODOLOGY– logical organization of any activity.

THE SCIENCE– a system of cognition based on the logical organization of the content of knowledge and on a strict form of its presentation.

SCIENTIFIC DESCRIPTION– a reliable and accurate picture of the object of knowledge, displayed by means of natural or artificial language.

SCIENTIFIC FACT- a fact firmly established, reliably confirmed and correctly described by methods accepted in science.

EXPERIENCE - the process and result of sensory acquisition of knowledge about reality.

FEELING – reflection of the properties of reality by human senses .

PSYCHOLOGY- the science of human mental life.

POSITIVISM- a direction in philosophy that limits its knowledge only to ready-made scientific facts and only to scientific methods of analysis.

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY– a system for the formation of scientific knowledge that claims to combine the characteristics of philosophy and exact science.

POSITIVE KNOWLEDGE– correct (good) knowledge.

SYNTHESIS(scientific method) – a method of cognition, consisting of a systematic combination of the semantic components of an object or its relationships into one whole.

SYNTHESIS(general concept) – the connection of parts, elements into a single whole.

SYNTHESIS ( thinking process ) - a way of reasoning that constructs new knowledge about the whole from the combination of its parts.

SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY– a system for the formation of scientific knowledge, designed to bring the achievements of individual special sciences into a single, logically coherent whole.

TREND– direction in development.

THEOLOGY- religious philosophy.

EXACT SCIENCE– a science based on quantitative measurement and statistical description of the objects being studied.

SPECULATIVE- something that really exists in thinking, but only supposedly exists in experience.

PHENOMENON- a phenomenon comprehended by sensory experience, sensations.

PHENOMENALISM– a philosophical principle according to which only phenomena, that is, objects of sensory experience, are recognized as the object of cognition.

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE– philosophy that studies science as a system for the development of scientific knowledge and as a form of human cognitive activity.

EMPIRIOCRITICISM- a philosophical system that seeks to limit philosophy to the presentation of the data of experience with the complete exclusion of any metaphysics.

EMPIRE– the area of ​​a person’s relationship with reality, determined by sensory experience.

PHENOMENON– external, sensory properties of an object.

Difficulties

Sometimes Mill's theory of evidence is understood as a universal method for testing the activity of thinking. But at the very first attempts to universally apply Mill's four inductive methods to processes of thought, many incidents occur. These incidents have nothing to do with Mill. Because the system of his logically necessary judgments is applicable only for a special purpose test - to check conclusions for compliance with observed experience. If you remember this, there will never be any confusion. So let's remember

Mill's methods are intended for comparing the results of thinking with the data of experience and for nothing else.

14. Philosophy of existentialism. The concept of existence.
Secular (Heidegger, Sartre, Camus) and religious (Jaspers) existentialism.

Existentialism(Latin exsistentia - existence) is a philosophy that recognizes only a person’s very experience of his existence as a true primordial being.

A person’s experience of his existence is an indisputable and genuine immediate given, inherent in him as existence - a person’s sense of his living presence in the world and in relationships with the world.

Since existence is an immediate given, its main feature, in this case, is that it is not deducible from any objective causes (biological, physiological, spiritual, unconscious, etc.), and is not reducible to them.

Consequently existence is not rationally knowable by any rational means (neither science nor philosophy) and also not objectified in any way(cannot be represented in the form of an object of knowledge): neither in the practical (in the form of objects or physical objects), nor in the theoretical (in the form of ideas or rational models). And only in moments of the deepest upheavals, in conditions of a borderline situation (in the face of death), can a person begin to see clearly and comprehend existence as the core of his being and as a way of his existence.

There are existentialism secular (Heidegger, Sartre, Camus) And religious (Jaspers).

MARTIN HEIDEGGER believed that:

1. Since existence is a person’s awareness of his finitude and temporality, the main characteristic of being is time. Consequently, being cannot be considered as something timeless; in its characteristics it is completely determined by its main essential characteristic - time. But since true being is existence, that is, something necessarily correlated with man, then true time must be correlated with man .

Thus:

– true time is time correlated with a person, the time that a person psychologically experiences (“initial time”), and

–not genuine time is time that is not correlated with a person, that is, objective, physical time, which is not experienced by a person and, therefore, which does not contain the existence of a person ("derived time").

2. Thus, if time is the main characteristic of human existence, and if time can be genuine and inauthentic, then human existence itself can also be genuine and inauthentic.

In this case:

– true being contains true time, that is, a person’s internal experience of his future, and

– inauthentic being remains frozen in the inauthentic physical time of the present.

3.So, true being is a person’s inner experience of his future.

But a person’s inner experience of the future is nothing more than fear of death, a person’s awareness of his finitude. Hence, in order to comprehend true existence and its meaning, a person must realize your mortality feel constantly in the face of death, and then he will be able to see the significance of every moment of life and will be freed from the piled-up goals of everyday life that hide the truth.

But to know existence beyond its meaning, to know being itself as such, that is, existence, is possible only at the moment of death when a person, through a mental effort of a special order, inaccessible at other moments in life, moves away from everything and turns to himself.

Heidegger's contribution to existentialism is his consideration of the relationship between being and time.

JEAN PAUL SARTRE believed that:

1. Time is just a property of the experiencing human soul. That is, time is an element of internal human reality, and not of the objective world external to man.

Human reality, therefore, exists in time, and since time in human reality is created by the psyche, the human psyche itself is a phenomenon that exists before time, before this very human reality, capable of experiencing and reflecting.

2. Thus, the human psyche once existed in a state incapable of experiencing and reflecting, until it created time and turned into the current reflective internal reality of man.

But at the same time, one should keep in mind the fact that the ability to reflect is the ability to realize oneself and gain experience of one’s individual existence. Consequently, in the pre-reflective state, human consciousness was incapable of realizing itself and perceiving its individual existence and, thus, was not capable of realizing the world, because it was not an individual consciousness, that is, a consciousness capable of containing something that is not itself.

Thus, consciousness creates a world for a person only when it transforms from pre-reflective consciousness into consciousness that has the experience of its individual existence. Thus, it is the experience of human consciousness that is that given fact that cannot be denied - existence, because if you deny this given fact, then a person must deny himself.

Thus

introductory expression and adverbial expression

1. Introductory expression. Same as “therefore, means.” Indicates the connection of thoughts, the sequence of their presentation. Identified by punctuation marks, usually commas. For details on punctuation for introductory words, see Appendix 2. ()

The balance of power is thus would have turned out clearly not in favor of the United States - and the landing was planned in France. Yu. Semenov, Seventeen moments of spring. Thus, It wasn't a matter of bad or good taste. L. Kassil, A matter of taste.

2. Adverbial expression. Same as “so”. Does not require punctuation.

And as a result of such reasoning, he remained forever in the same silent state, uttering only occasionally some monosyllabic sounds, and acquired Thus title of the most boring person. N. Gogol, Overcoat. Thinking this way , he rushed forward. I. Ilf, E. Petrov, Bright personality. Relationships this way were restored, and all three sat down on the bench again. M. Bulgakov, The Master and Margarita.

Dictionary-reference book on punctuation. - M.: Reference and information Internet portal GRAMOTA.RU. V. V. Svintsov, V. M. Pakhomov, I. V. Filatova. 2010 .

Synonyms:

See what “thus” is in other dictionaries:

Thus- therefore, it follows from here, in this way, so, from which it follows, thus, it became, consequently, this, from which it is clear, from this it follows, in such a manner, in such a way of life, therefore, it turns out, in this manner, in this way, in such a spirit , so it turns out... ... Synonym dictionary

Thus- Unism. 1. In this way, so. With verb. nesov. and owls kind of: how? thus receive, achieve, perform, achieve, perform... Hard work, constant improvement of knowledge and skill - only in this way can one achieve success in... ... Educational phraseological dictionary

Thus- I still see this; in zn. introductory collocation Therefore, so. II in this way see image I; in zn. introductory collocation Anyway; hence. Thus, the meeting was scheduled for the morning. Thus, you refuse our... ... Dictionary of many expressions

Thus- after all, Benjamin acted exactly this way... Spelling difficult adverbs

Thus- adv. qualities circumstances 1. In this way; So. 2. Used as an introductory phrase, emphasizing the meaning of the result, the result of a previous action and the corresponding word: so. Ephraim's explanatory dictionary. T. F. Efremova. 2000... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Efremova

Thus- *tsu taipara... Russian-Ingush dictionary

the way I do- adverb, number of synonyms: 4 in my opinion (23) just like me (4) just like me (4) ... Synonym dictionary

in the same way as- sentence, number of synonyms: 1 similar (20) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary

Conjunction + adverbial expression; conjunction + introductory expression 1. Conjunction + adverbial expression. Same as “in this way”, “so”. An adverb does not require punctuation. Punctuation during conjunction depends on the syntactic structure of the sentence. Mother,... ... Dictionary-reference book on punctuation

part of a block of shares sold over a period of time in such a way as to avoid a decline in the market price- Can be part of an initial public offering program (placement of a new issue) or a secondary public offering after preliminary registration (shelf registration) ... Financial and investment explanatory dictionary

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