Education reform. Navigation and Pushkar schools. Navigation and Pushkar schools of Peter Peter’s Decree on the opening of a navigation school

Veselago F. Essay on the history of the Moscow Cadet Corps. St. Petersburg, 1852

1695 - the beginning of shipbuilding in Voronezh “and celebrated the christening of the newborn fleet with the capture of Azov and the opening of two seas for our flag: the Azov and the Black” P.3

1697 - Grand Embassy, ​​Holland and England, "replenished his maritime information with everything he could learn in the two glorious maritime powers"

“In the first years of the existence of our fleet, except for the sovereign himself, there were almost no knowledgeable Russian sailors, and all officer positions were occupied by hired foreigners. Probably there was just no opportunity, or there were no people at hand capable of carrying out the Tsar’s idea of ​​a naval school.

Finally, while he was in London (1698), the sovereign ordered to find a good teacher of mathematics and marine sciences, and on this order, they introduced him to Professor Farvarson of the University of Aberdeen, who, at the invitation of the sovereign, decided to join the Russian service.”

Henry Farhvarson (1675-1739) came to Russia at the age of 26; he was a teacher at one of two colleges in Aberdeen (Scotland), as a result of which the University of Aberdeen later emerged. His students, 15-year-old Stefan Gwyn (d. 1720) and 17-year-old Richard Gries, came with him. The latter decided to return to England in 1709, and was killed on the way home by robbers on the Narva postal route.

For the needs of the Sukharev School, the tower is being completed: a third tier appears, which houses classrooms and a foil hall, where students practiced fencing.

A wooden amphitheater is being built on the western side, in which the masquerade boat “Peacemaker” is kept.

P.6 If you believe the legend, then the stone Sretensky Gate “with a tent,” which began construction in 1692, was supposed to resemble a ship with a mast. The galleries of the second tier represented shkhants (the upper deck of the ship), the eastern side represented the ship's bow, and the western side represented the stern. According to the inscription preserved on the tower, its construction was completed in 1695, but as it is clear from the deeds that it was still being completed from 1698 to 1701, it may have received its current appearance at that time.

P.7 The plan for the establishment of the school was drawn up by the sovereign himself with Farvarson, and although the main and highest subject of study was marine sciences, at the same time it was assumed from this, so far the only secular school, to graduate young people into all branches of military and civil services, which required some scientific information, or even just knowledge of Russian literacy. Thus, in addition to sailors, the Navigation School produced engineers, artillerymen, teachers in other new schools, surveyors, architects, civil officials, clerks, craftsmen, etc. In a word, capable servicemen were required from the Navigation School for almost all services .

Leonty Filippovich Magnitsky (1669-1739) (the son of a peasant from the Ostashkovskaya Patriarchal Settlement), in 1700 was granted the title Magnitsky by Peter I and “was appointed a teacher of mathematics to the Russian noble youth.” His name is not included in the decree establishing the school, but already in February 1701 he was hired by the Armory to write a textbook on arithmetic. This is evidenced by the corresponding “extract”: “On the 1st day of February (1701) the Ostashkovite Leonty Magnitsky was taken into the payroll of the Armory Chamber, who was ordered for the benefit of the people to publish, through his work in the Slovenian dialect, a book of arithmetic. And he wants to have with him, with the help of the Kadashevite Vasily Kiprianov for the sake of the speedy publication of the book..." Arithmetic was published in 1703 and was a complete work of mathematics, including arithmetic, trigonometry, geometry and the basics of navigation.

The full title of the textbook: “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers. Translated from different dialects into the Slavic language, and collected into one, and divided into two books.” The book is a fairly large volume, has 662 pages, is typed in Cyrillic, decorated with engravings, the text is illustrated with drawings and drawings, and poetic inserts are used. At the bottom of the title page the compiler is indicated: “This book was written through the works of Leontius Magnitsky.” On the back of the title page is encrypted with the acrostic “Theodore Polikarpov Ruled”, participation in the work on the book by F.P. Polikarpov-Orlov, manager of the Moscow Printing House, where “Arithmetic” was published.

The two books mentioned in the title have the following titles: “Arithmetic of politics, or civil” and “Arithmetic of logistics not only according to citizenship, but also belonging to the movement of celestial circles.”

The first book is divided into five parts. The first one contains information about numbering and four arithmetic operations with integers, a section on money counting, measures and weights, the next one is devoted to fractions. The third and fourth are for practical tasks. The latter discusses (as applied to naval and military affairs) algebraic rules, progressions and roots. Finally, decimal fractions are given, which were new to the corresponding educational literature.

The second book (arithmetic-logistics) is divided into three parts. The first one deals with quadratic equations. The second is devoted to geometry and trigonometry: problems on measuring areas, theorems on trigonometric functions of various angles. The final part relates to the mathematical foundations of navigation - “Generally about earthly dimensions and what is necessary for navigation.” Here we consider the mathematical application to navigation of information already obtained in arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry. Using the attached tables, the navigation problem of determining the latitude of a place by the inclination of the magnetic needle is solved, the time of high and low tides is calculated, etc.

The Navigation School was ordered to accept children of nobles, clerks, clerks, from the houses of boyars and other ranks, from 12 to 17 years old, but since in these summers a small number came from the houses of boyars, they began to accept 20-year-olds. (and even older)

P.10 The number of pupils was set at 500 people.

P.11 Whoever had peasants with more than five households had to live at his own expense, receiving nothing from the treasury; others received, according to their level of knowledge, a decent salary (“feed money”). In 1701, the larger salary was 5 altyn, the next hryvnia or less, and after (1709) from 6 money to a hryvnia and even up to 4 altyn (12 kopecks) per day.

All expenses were allocated 22,459 rubles. 6 alt. and 5 money

At school they taught: arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, with their practical applications to geodesy and, most importantly, to navigation, for which navigation and part of astronomy were taught.

One of the gymnastic exercises was fencing, for which students received an additional salary.

Those who did not know Russian literacy were initially taught to read and write; the class where literacy was taught was called the Russian School; and the arithmetic class is the Numerical School. Young men of the lower classes, “commoners”, having learned to write and count, completed their studies and were appointed clerks, to various positions in the admiralty, as assistants to architects, pharmacists, etc. Children of the noble “gentry” from the Russian and digital schools entered the higher classes for further education.

P.12 The course taken at school, in principle small and not difficult, at that time required great effort, patience and diligence from the student. The heavy scholastic system of teaching and the news of the Russian scientific language obscured the simplest things to the last extreme. Often, after months of hard work, it turned out that most of the knowledge gained was rote useless phrases, empty definitions and a lot of scientific tricks that only seemed like science to the layman. Moreover, in the first years of the school’s existence, foreign teachers did not know Russian well, and therefore their lessons were difficult to understand.

The reading proceeded in the generally accepted order, hallowed by antiquity: it began with the ABC, continued with the Book of Hours, the Psalter and ended with the civil press, the degree of success was proportional to the number of memorized pages or, in the psalter, kathisma. The rest was all pretty complicated at school. Arithmetic was obscured and stretched out in such a way that, for example, operations on each type of named numbers were presented as separate, independent subjects. In geometry and trigonometry, only results without proofs were passed, but here, too, the definitions were frightening. Navigation, an essentially simple and easy science, was divided into several rather difficult parts. The necessary parts of marine astronomy came from astronomy, and under the name “geography” they meant some information from mathematical geography.

Some books published in Russian in Amsterdam at the Tessing printing house, and then in Moscow, served as aids. In Amsterdam, the following were published in Kopievich’s translation: “An Introduction to Every History” (1699), “A Brief Introduction to Arithmetic (1699), “A Book Teaching Sea Navigation” by Abraham de Graaf (1701). In 1703, Magnitsky’s “Arithmetic” was published in Moscow. For his work on the publication of Arithmetic, Magnitsky, according to the Highest Decree, was given feed money, from February 2, 1701 to January 1, 1702, 5 altyns per day, which amounted to only 49 rubles, 31 altyns and 4 money.

In addition, the students used Farvarson’s notes, which the students rewrote under the name “Farvarson’s Navigation” (very poorly translated into Russian).

In 1703 (church seal with Arabic numerals), at the behest of the sovereign, tables of logarithms and trigonometric lines were printed in Moscow, republished in 1716 by the civil press, “with the care and testimony of Farvarson, Gwin and Magnitsky.”

Also used were Mercator maps of the whole world, made especially for students of the Navigation School by engraver Vasily Kupriyanov.

The class of each teacher was, as it were, a separate school, independent of the others, and the teachers, not subordinate to one another, each on their own had contact with the highest authorities of the school, and observed not only the teaching, but also the behavior of their students.

In the first years of the school's existence, students were given, against their receipts: Arithmetic, apparently from Magnitsky, tables of logarithms, slate boards and slates. The instruments distributed included plan and Gantir scales (rulers), radii (city rods), sectors and quadrants (all three instruments served to measure the heights of luminaries), nocturnals (tools for determining time from observations of the stars of Ursa Minor and Ursa Major), “books of sea hartins” , prepared sets with copper instruments, simple and tripod compasses, “hartin” compasses (used for maps), some of which were ordered from abroad, while others were made in their own workshop at the school. At the end of school, manuals and tools were taken away.

In 1704, 49 dragoons from Voronezh were sent to the school, among whom were several sergeants, ensigns, captains, corporals and privates.

Some students lived at the school, others in apartments.

For major offenses they were punished in the schoolyard with whips; noble nobles were fined for truancy by decree of February 28, 1707: for the first day of truancy - 5 rubles, for the second - 10, for the third and all subsequent days - 15. Such fines for five months of 1707, 8545 rubles accumulated.

Children of almost all noble families studied at the Navigation School - the Volkonskys, Solntsev-Zasekins, Lopukhins, Shakhovskys, Khilkovs, Urusovs, Dolgorukys, Prozorovskys, Khovanskys, Sheremetevs, Boryatinskys, Sobakins, Shcherbatovs, Golovins, Dmitrievs-Mamonovs, etc., many of them are also found on the penalty list.

School teachers, in addition to teaching and writing, also had other responsibilities. They reviewed and approved books for publication, and treated them with all scholarly questions. The king himself watched them, shared their labors, talked as equal to equal, he himself learned something else, and sometimes gave them various jobs that required higher knowledge. So, in 1709, he wrote from Voronezh, asking the professors to send him telescopes to observe the eclipse of the sun, calculate the time of the eclipse and make a drawing of how it would be visible in Voronezh. In 1712, Farvarson appointed a road from St. Petersburg to Moscow, which was then started and brought to Novgorod.

The attention of Peter I to the Navigation School gave rise to all the rumors associated with the Sukharev Tower.

P.23 Taking care of the mental education of his students, the sovereign wanted to arouse in them a desire for the pleasures of an enlightened society. For this purpose, at the very founding of the school in 1701, a troupe of actors was sent from Danzig, which, together with the students of the school, in the halls of the Sukharev Tower, presented secular comedies, often visited by the sovereign himself.

During the reign of Peter I, music was played in the gallery of the Sukharev Tower at the Admiral's hour, and in the evening, in front of the Tsar.

The Emperor, at every opportunity, made his associates understand the importance of the school he founded. Concerned about filling the opening vacancies with new students, he wrote to Apraksin: “Even though they have recruited and multiplied too much, you can still see for yourself what the benefit is, that this school is needed not only for naval navigation, but also for artillery and engineering.”

Strict decrees ordered that minors be sent to inspection, and not be assigned to schools of their choice. Those who disobeyed were severely punished: they were forced to study for five years without pay, or, for example, those who voluntarily enrolled in the Slavic-Latin Academy were sent to “the galley” for three years, i.e. into hard labor.

P.26 Pupils who successfully completed the course at school were sent everywhere. Most of the nobles were appointed to the navy, others to engineers and artillerymen, to the Preobrazhensky Regiment as bombardiers, as conductors to the Quartermaster General, to architectural affairs, etc.; and others, more capable and richer, for practical improvement, were sent abroad under the name navigators.

Navigators were also generally called older students who had completed a full course of marine sciences, some of them served in the navy, while others remained in school, where they first helped professors in teaching science, and then became teachers themselves.

There was no proper graduation and admission at the school; they graduated according to requirements, and only cared to fill the remaining vacancies as quickly as possible.

Navigators were sent to science abroad in Holland, England, Denmark, France, Venice and even Spain. Young people usually volunteered there to serve on warships or galleys, depending on who was preparing to serve in the sailing or rowing fleet, and served for five years or more. Others, before entering active service, studied at the local naval schools.

Having become practically familiar with maritime affairs, the navigators returned to Russia, and after a strict examination, sometimes done by the sovereign himself, in accordance with their successes, they were promoted - the best to the first S.27 officer rank, non-commissioned lieutenant, and the mediocre ones to midshipman - a non-officer rank at that time . Along with the nobles, students from commoners and minor nobility were also sent. They studied the art of navigating and upon returning to Russia they became navigators.

Persons who supervise navigators and students abroad in their reports called the former masters, and the latter navigator students and simply students. The “gentlemen” supported themselves for the most part at their own expense, and the students received a salary of 8 efimki per month (7 rubles 20 kopecks).

P.29 Navigators produced many excellent naval officers who received their education at this time and subsequently reached the highest ranks and brought great benefit to the fleet. Of these, we can point to Konon Zotov, the son of Nikita Moiseevich. Zotov was an excellent officer, wrote several useful essays on naval matters, and rose to the rank of rear admiral. Nikolai Fedorovich Golovin, admiral, president of the admiralty board, Prince Mikhail Mikhailovich Golitsyn, admiral general and president of the board, Fedor Ivanovich Soimonov, hydrograph writer, smart, talented man, who was still a lieutenant favorite of Peter I, Beloselsky, Kalmykov, Lopukhin, Dmitriev- Mamonov, Sheremetev, etc.

The navigation school, from its foundation, was under the jurisdiction of the Armory Chamber, under the control of the boyar Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin, “with his comrades.” Although the sovereign ordered Golovin about everything related to the school, he, due to many other activities and frequent absences from Moscow, could not have personal direct influence on the school. (Correspondence with Kurbatov about school). After the death of Golovin, teachers and students of the school, December 15, 1706, were ordered to be in the Prikaz of the Navy and then in June 1712 under the jurisdiction of the Admiralty Chancellery. From the time the school entered the naval department, the main supervision over it was held by the Admiralty, and later by the Admiral General, Count Fedor Matveevich Apraksin. While managing the entire naval unit, he also paid attention to the school. All the royal decrees relating to it went through him, and although Apraksin, in his service, was also often absent from Moscow, but, receiving reports, he did not stop working on the affairs of the school. In the absence of the sovereign, he examined the children of the nobility, assigned them to school and sent them abroad.

P.33 The navigation school, during its fifteen-year existence, brought great benefits. She formed the first Russian naval officers, who made the hiring of foreigners almost unnecessary. Our first engineers, artillerymen, and in general many figures of the new Perov order were pupils of the school. Our hydrographers and topographers, known as “surveyors,” studied within its walls. They were the first to penetrate for scientific purposes into the most remote regions of Russia, drew up maps of entire regions, seashores, explored rivers, described forests, designated roads, etc. Due to the imperfection of the methods and tools of that time, their work was far from perfect, but the works of surveyors, due to the enormous benefits they brought and the dedication with which they worked, deserve full respect.

Before surveyors, we did not have our own geographical maps, but we had geographical drawings, those. descriptions put on paper, preserving the distances between cities, and almost without respecting the relative positions of places. The latest geographical drawing was the atlas of Siberia, compiled by Remezov (1701), and the first survey according to the rules of science was made by the sovereign himself during his voyage along the Don River, from Voronezh to Azov (1699). From this time on, a series of works by surveyors began, the maps of which, in addition to fulfilling the private goals of the government, served as material for the compilation of the first complete atlas of Russia, published by the Chief Secretary of the Senate Kirillov, also a graduate of the Navigation School.

Finally, from this school, literacy began to spread among the people, aimed at civic benefits. In all the newly established schools, teachers were taken from the Navigation School and everywhere, in addition to reading and writing, they taught arithmetic and geometry, which were, if necessary, very useful for any occupation and craft.

School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences

Concept

When creating a fleet in an initially land-based country, the main task, undoubtedly, is the training of naval personnel. Inviting foreign masters, Tsar Peter strove to prepare his own, Russian specialists as quickly as possible, dreamed of “inventing the shortest and most capable way to introduce science and train his people as quickly as possible,” and, of course, he was impatient to replace foreigners at the shipyards and on the decks of warships. It didn’t work out quickly, not always, and not everything. In the first quarter of the 18th century, the personnel problem emerged as the need to speed up the training of officers and crew training, which turned into a grandiose task of introducing the people to the sea.

The new century for the Russian naval forces began with the organization of an educational institution with a naval focus. Historians have repeatedly suggested that attempts to organize maritime training had been made earlier at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. V. Berkh, without any particular reason, attributed the role of organizer to A.L. Ordyn-Nashchokin (Berkh V. Lives of the first Russian admirals. Part 1. St. Petersburg, 1831. P. 45-46), which is not excluded, since he was the organizer of the construction ships and Caspian trade navigation.

But only after the return of the Great Embassy, ​​an environment arose around the king, within which an atmosphere of reverence for the sea developed, an understanding of the need to create a maritime school emerged, and an idea of ​​what it should be was formed. People appeared who were able to take on part of the solution to this problem, the first of them were F. Lefort, F. Golovin, V. Bruce.

“Sretenskaya in Zemlyanoy Gorod” tower (it was called Sukhareva after the death of Peter I after the Streltsy Regiment of Lavrentiy Sukharev) stood on the outskirts, on a high place. From the observation decks of the tower one could clearly see the horizon, which is important when studying astronomy. The dimensions of the building in plan were approximately 42x25 m. The total area of ​​the three floors, excluding internal walls, reached 2394 sq. m. m. In the upper tier there were classes and the “Rapier Hall” with 19 axes - window openings, here they practiced fencing, gymnastics, etc. In the lower floor of the building, in the vaulted chamber, there was a large copper globe, brought to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from Holland, with From 1733 to 1752 it was stored in a barn next to the tower. On the western side, a wooden barn was added to the Sukharev Tower, where a model of a sailing ship was placed to study the structure of the ship. The students arranged themselves in an amphitheater around him. The ship was taken to processions on special occasions, for example in 1722 and 1744.

F. Benoit. Sukharev Tower, 1846

In the hall of the Navigation School, a troupe of actors from Danzig, together with schoolchildren, staged secular comedies, and the sovereign was sometimes present at the performances. This was Yagan Kunsht's troupe of nine comedians, who performed in 1702-1704. on the Red Square. Music was played in the tower galleries at admiral's hour, in the evening and before dawn.

Ya. Bruce worked in the Sukharev Tower, his library was kept here, there was a cabinet of mathematical, mechanical and other instruments, as well as “nature” - animals, insects (insects), roots, all kinds of ores and minerals, antiquities, ancient coins, medals, carved stones , personalities and in general both foreign and domestic “curiosities”. Bruce instructed Pastor Gluck, who was captured along with Martha Skavronskaya (in Orthodoxy - Ekaterina Alekseevna, from January 28, 1725 - Catherine I), to compile a list of all objects and books.

Jacob Bruce

Astronomical observations were made from the tower platforms. Bruce organized an observatory in the tower, equipped it with instruments and himself taught observations to those who wished, including Tsar Peter himself, to determine the longitude of a place by observing solar eclipses. Peter instructed Bruce to inform him of upcoming eclipses and personally observed the eclipses of March 22, 1699, May 1, 1705, and possibly others. Teacher A.D. Farvarson, on behalf of Peter, was engaged in pre-calculation of the time of eclipses, compiled astronomical calendars, and prepared textbooks on astronomy and mathematics.

Directorate of the Navigation School

The school was transferred to the department of the Armory Chamber, where records of all artisans were kept. Its head, Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin, Admiral General, also became the first head of the Navigation School, a kind of chief manager. The actual management and supervision of the state of affairs at the school was entrusted to the clerk of the Armory Chamber, Alexei Alexandrovich Kurbatov. The former slave of boyar B.P. Sheremetev, who accompanied him on a trip to Italy, received this position for submitting the idea of ​​​​issuing stamp, or “eagle”, paper, long invented in the West. Sometimes he is called the secretary of the Arsenal, mistakenly identifying the Arsenal with the Armory. In 1705, A.A. Kurbatov headed the Burmist Chamber and the Town Hall, and this ended his leadership of the Navigation School.

The navigation school had a general education direction, and its full name - School of Mathematical and then Navigational Sciences - was not given to it by chance. The school did graduate young people “into all branches of service, military and civilian,” who required knowledge of some scientific information, mainly geometry and geography. After the death of F.A. Golovin in 1706, Admiralty Fyodor Matveevich Apraksin was elevated “to his level” (Letter of Peter I to F.M. Apraksin dated March 11, 1707 from Zholkva), but he only managed the naval department.

By decree of February 22, 1707, the Navigation School was ordered to be a member of the Order of the Navy. Apraksin’s attempts to manage the School in the interests of his department were stopped by Peter in a letter dated August 3, 1708: “Mr. Admiral! ...You can see for yourself what good there is in that, that not only does naval navigation need this school, but also artillery and engineering...” The school was supported by fees contributed by the courtiers to the Order of the Navy (Admiralty Order), and the same money was used to support students sent overseas. In 1714, the amount of fees was 22,459 rubles, and only 3,037 rubles were allocated for the maintenance of the Engineering School. (Decree (PSZ. Part I, vol. 4. No. 2542 dated June 9, 1712); Part I, vol. 5. No. 2798 dated April 16, 1714. From the list of clothes purchased for the schoolboy Shchukin, one can judge , that for the students they determined a French uniform, consisting of a caftan, camisole, shirt, stockings, shoes and a hat (Tkacheva N.K. On the history of the Navigation School // Soviet archives. 1976. No. 2. P. 93). In comparison with in the uniform of an artillery school student, she looked luxurious.

Peter I examines the recruits

Magnitsky Arithmetic, Kipriyanov Library and Printing House

At the time of the founding of the Navigation School, Magnitsky and Kipriyanov, residents of the Kadashevskaya Sloboda, which stretched across the river opposite the Kremlin, were in the field of view of its organizers. An interesting extract has been preserved: “On the 1st day of February, Ostashkovite Leonty Magnitsky was taken into the records of the Armory Chamber, who was ordered, for the sake of the people, to publish a book of arithmetic through his work in the Slovenian dialect. And he wants to have the Kadashevite Vasily Kiprianov with him for the sake of quickly publishing the book. About which he admitted that he had some knowledge and desire in those sciences. According to his report, his great sovereign, by command, he, Vasily, was taken to the Armory on the same February 16th day and, through teachers of mathematical schools, testified about the art of the above-mentioned sciences. And according to the testimony of him, the great sovereign, the decree was written down in the Armory Chamber of his, the great sovereign, and he was ordered to quickly complete the publication of that book in whatever way he could assist Magnitsky, in which he worked on the very completion of that book.”

Three weeks later they received money from the Armory Chamber. But they went down in history separately: Magnitsky as the author of the unique “Arithmetic”, and Kipriyanov as a librarian and typographer. In 1705, he headed the established Civil Printing House, which printed educational literature, as well as the first Russian educational maps. He compiled a tabular version of the mathematics textbook “A new method of arithmetic, pheorics or visual, composed with questions for the sake of a convenient concept” - a visual way to study theoretical arithmetic. Kipriyanov’s isolation or independence is visible in the example of the library he created, which originated from the book warehouse of a printing house with a monopoly right of trade. Vasily Kipriyanov received the title of librarian from the sovereign.

Taking into account the people with whom he interacted, the printing house and library are sometimes attributed to the Navigation School (Magnitsky) or to the Artillery Order (Bruce). In fact, the printing house was created on the personal initiative of its director, existed as a commercial enterprise in the period from 1705 to 1722, the business he started was continued in 1723 by his son Vasily, and the experience of its activities was taken into account when creating new centers of Peter the Great's book printing.

The printing house of Vasily Anufrievich Kipriyanov was famous for the publication of geographical maps and secular books. Bruce translated Christiaan Huygens's book Cosmoteoros (1698, published 1717, 1724), which outlined the essence of the Copernican system and Newton's theory of gravitation. In Russian translation it was called “The Book of the World View”. Kipriyanov published a map of the starry sky and mathematical and geographical textbooks for navigators. Kipriyanov’s maps, created not without the influence of Y.V. Bruce, reflected the latest achievements of world geographical thought, but with Russian amendments, which is written on the maps: “I pray and ask, even if there are sins in these maps, correct them with your hand. We ask for forgiveness” (See: P. Pekarsky. Science and literature in Russia under Peter the Great. T. II. Description of Slavic-Russian books and printing houses 1698-1725. St. Petersburg, 1862). By the happy will of fate, the first correctors of his works were the students of the Navigation School.

The educational process at the Navigation School

It is believed that the school had two primary preparatory classes: Russian and digital schools. However, the “Russian school” appeared in the minds of historians due to an inaccurate interpretation of the initial stage of education - the school of the native language. The native language was not studied at the Navigation School; Thus, on June 18, 1710, the ruler of the admiralty office, Belyaev, wrote to Count Apraksin: “Soldiers’ children are admitted to school if they can not only read, but also write, since it is impossible to be ignorant of letters.” Another thing is the digital school. In the list of students studying maritime science, the school in 1705 consisted of 198 people, of whom 134 studied “tsifiri” (mathematics), 64 completed the navigation school (Materials for the history of the Russian fleet. Part 3. St. Petersburg, 1866. pp. 295-300, 304). The majority completed the course in 5 years; those who stayed too long were sent to become soldiers or sailors.

The teachers at the school were mathematics professor Andrei Danilovich Farvarson and navigators Stefan Gvyn and Richard Grace. Professor Farvarson was considered a master, the other teachers were apprentices. From the report of A.A. Kurbatov: “... only Farvarson takes his work seriously,” and “the other two, although they are called navigators, know much less about their science than Leonty (Magnitsky - V.G.)” (Quoted from : Soloviev S.M. Works: in 18 books, Book 8, vol. 15. M., 1993, pp. 1347-1348).

Kurbatov spoke particularly poorly of Grace, describing him as worthless and that teacher Farvarson did not like him. In January 1709, at five o'clock in the morning, Grace went to visit, or rather was returning from visiting, and on Sretenka, next to the school, he encountered robbers, they robbed and killed him (S. M. Soloviev, History of Russia. Book. III. St. Petersburg, 1911. P. 1346. Kurbatov’s letters to Golovin and Peter I see: Veselago F.F. Essay on the history of the Naval Cadet Corps. Note 44).

Teaching took place in English, and the students' command of English was poor. Only the Russian 30-year-old literate L.F. Magnitsky taught arithmetic, geometry and trigonometry in his native language. His course was based on the textbook “Arithmetic” he wrote, the last part of which was devoted to navigation. In 1712, the teacher Protopopov was mentioned. It is known about the remaining teachers that they all come from graduates of the same school.

Students sequentially studied geometry (“land surveying”), plane geometry, stereometry, and in parallel trigonometry and drawing. The students wrote on slate boards with slates. All senior students in the upper classes, as well as school graduates, were called navigators. They studied geography, diurnals (keeping a navigation journal), flat and mercator navigation.

In the then definition, “flat navigation is rectilinear navigation on a flat superficio of the sea (Latin superficio - surface). On long journeys across the sea, it is impossible to really hope for this, because this shipping, in its use, means the earthly superficies to be a flat square, and not a spherical body.”

Round navigation “is the shortest navigation of all,” it arose because the line on the ball is curved when projected onto a flat map, which should be taken into account when plotting a course on the Mercator map. Geography, which studies the body of the earth in conjunction with the properties of celestial bodies, is what was then called cosmography. The most capable students mastered spherics - spherical trigonometry, the basis of mathematical geography and marine astronomy; these students grew up to be navigators and surveyors.

Book teaching sea navigation

In 1701, Abraham de Graaf’s “Book Instructing Sea Navigation” was published in Amsterdam; I.F. Kopievsky translated it, and he also published it. The book contained brief information from mathematics, cosmography, geometry and geography. It talked about the points and circles of the celestial sphere, about the compass, about correcting points (a point - in maritime navigation - a measure of the angle of the horizon circumference, divided into 32 points) (reduction to the true meridian), about sea maps, about determining latitude from the heights of the sun and stars (a table of declinations for 32 years was attached), about the current of the sea. Many foreign words in the book are translated into Russian: tools - utensils, equator - layout, zodiac - life-giving circle and horizon - eye. But foreign terminology has taken root. The equator, for example, began to be called “linea equinocucialis” - a line equidistant from the poles.

Mordvinov Semyon Ivanovich

For drawing, schoolchildren used plan and Gantir scales (Plan and Gantir scales are special graphs for solving navigation problems. See: Mordvinov S.I. Book of the complete collection about Navigation... Part 4. St. Petersburg, 1744), simple and tripod compasses. Goniometer tools: radii (?), sectors, quadrants, nocturnals. There were books of sea paintings (geographical maps) - atlases.

Book by S.I. Mordvinov

The main goniometer tool is a grad rod. Gradient rods of various designs consisted of a rod itself with a scale in degrees and a movable cross member; in principle, they determined the angle by its tangent. A quadrant (90 degree sector) is similar to a protractor with a plumb line. Nocturnals were used to determine time at night. There were also astronomical tubes in the arsenal of technical teaching aids.

Gradstock

Navigators were trained in the use of instruments, calculations using astronomical and mathematical tables, and keeping a ship's log. The great difficulty was studying the spar and sail control; to make things easier, there were mock-ups. True fanatics who were in love with this difficult but romantic profession could successfully master the maritime trade. Studying was intense. Teachers were responsible for academic performance and reported “those who completed science” to the Naval Order, and later to the Admiralty. Holidays were established for Christmastide, then summer holidays were added - from July 15 to August 15. From 1711, from the best school students, they began to choose tens to supervise their own brethren, “so that these schoolchildren do not get drunk and do not absent themselves from school without permission, fight with anyone and do not offend anyone in anything.”

Composition of students

Initially, the Navigation School was designed for 200 students, and although in 1701 only four students entered there, which was associated with the move to the Sukharev Tower, by July 1702 the planned number of students was recruited, and this number continued to grow. By January 1703, there were already 300 people (Materials for the history of the Russian fleet. Part 3. pp. 295-300; Vedomosti. 1703. January 2. In 1710, after another sovereign pressure, 250 people enrolled in the school, from of them: from noble families - 41, children of guards soldiers - 209. The following year, 500 students aged 15 to 33 years were recruited, in 1712 - 538. Ultimately, the school became the largest practical school in Europe.

Of the 200 people of the first composition, 15% were aged 13-17 years, 71% were 18-23 years old, the remaining 14% were over 23 years old. The school accepted not only the children of nobles, but also clergy, townspeople and other persons (only the children of serfs and working people were not accepted). In 1705, the largest number of students consisted of children of clerks (hunters and grooms) and church workers; The children of nobles and even boyars also studied; in 1715, out of a total number of 427, there were more children of soldiers and non-commissioned officers - 194, of nobles - 116.

According to data from 1708, in all disciplines, courtiers (nobles) predominated among successful students, since many of them received training at home. However, later flat navigation was studied by 15 people from the townspeople, and the boyar and soldier children were equally divided - 9 each; One of the soldiers' children studied spherics, but none of the boyar children, which suggests that they were transferred to the upper classes not according to class, but according to ability. Only one nobleman was responsible for perfecting circular navigation.

Until 1711, the children of courtiers studied and voluntarily left for the Senate: Prince F.N. Gagarin, Prince I.V. Volkonsky, A.P. Verderevsky, P.I. Bartenev, A.P. Doroshenkov, I.I. Kaisarov , A.I.Kaisarov. They are considered to be on the run. But, judging by the Kaisarovs and Verderevsky, they had some good reasons for this, which did not prevent them from later becoming excellent sailors and founders of maritime dynasties.

In 1712, the teacher Protopopov compiled a statement dated March 17: in total there were 517 people in the school, 15 people were sent to St. Petersburg, 6 were sent to engineering science, 10 were sent to architectural affairs. 50 were ready to be sent “for science overseas”. people, “towards engineering science” – 170.

From the Order of the Navy, 22 people were sent to study the maritime profession in 1707, in 1709 - 28, in 1710 - 6. Not a lot, considering that in 1711 there were 311 navigators at the school who completed the initial course in navigation . This means that the bulk of the students entered this class from outside (Report of teacher Protopopov dated March 17, 1712). As a result, from 1701 to 1716, 1,600 people studied at the school, of which 400 later served as sailors, non-commissioned officers and navigators, in the artillery - gunners, gunners, and guards. Mastering a profession from the lowest level was common even for nobles.

The training of sailors was not limited to training at a navigation school. To continue their studies, young people were sent abroad. Practical training on domestic ships was not excluded.

Graduates of the Navigation School

The first students left the school in 1703, when an order was given to send two people from among the best students to Voronezh “for the sake of teaching sailors.” The first official graduation took place in 1705 - 64 people. In 1706, Denis Kalmykov went to England and returned 7 years later (future admiral). Thanks to another inaccuracy of Golikov, who portrayed Denis as a natural Kalmyk in the service of Maxim Spafariev, the episode with their participation ended up in the novel by A.N. Tolstoy, and then in the film “Peter I”. In fact, Denis Kalmykov and Maxim Spafariev were abroad in different years. Denis Spiridonovich belonged to the noble family of Grigory Stepanovich Kalmykov, solicitor at the court of Tsarina Praskovya Feodorovna, and no one during Admiral D.S. Kalmykov’s entire service noted Kalmyk traits in him. The only truth was that Spafariev really did not make a sailor.

Kalmykov Denis Spiridonovich

In 1707, the scribe's son Ivan Kirilov (1689-1737) graduated. At the age of 13 he came to the Navigation School (1702), completed his studies in Amsterdam and London, in 1712 he served as a freelance scribe in Yelets, in the same year he was transferred to St. Petersburg and from 1715 for 20 years he led all cartographic activities in the country.

In 1708, Stepan Vasilyevich Lopukhin (1685-1748), cousin of Queen Evdokia, graduated from school; continued his studies in England. Pyotr Kalinovich Pushkin, the son of steward Kalina Gavrilovich, was assigned as a volunteer to the navy and in 1710 was sent to Holland. Fyodor Soimonov studied at school for 3 years (from 1708 to 1711) and 5 years in Holland, known as the first Russian hydrographer.

Soymonov Fedor Ivanovich

By 1715, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences had trained about 1,200 specialists in various fields. At the same time, according to the decree of December 20 (Decree of December 20, 1715, Named, announced from the Senate. On the expulsion of noble children to the St. Petersburg school (PSZ. T. 4. No. 2968)), the division began into the Navigation School and the Naval School academy, the students were transferred to St. Petersburg. The Emperor indicated: “Which there are children of noble persons in Russia, all of them, from 10 years old and above, should be sent to the St. Petersburg school, and not sent to foreign lands, and so that these minors are sent away this winter.”
The question of who and where studied at this time and where they completed their studies is extremely confusing. Fyodor Luzhin, “a young church child,” was allowed to finish his studies at school. Semyon Chelyuskin, an orphan, was sent to St. Petersburg in October 1715 and was soon returned back as an “unnoble person.” 20-year-old Ivan Borisov, son of the Evreins (Russified Swede Yagan Rodilgusov), was already studying “Mercatorian navigation” in January 1716, but soon, in mid-February of the same year, among 135 students, he went to St. Petersburg to be assigned to the Naval Academy. This number included Stepan Malygin (at school in 1711-1715), three Koshelev brothers and recently enrolled 15-year-old Pyotr Chaplin, Alexey Chirikov and his cousin Ivan.

Arriving at school on February 23, 1716, 14-year-old Vasily Pronchishchev, the son of the hero of the Crimean campaigns (1687-1689), asked to be transferred along with his cousins: Alexander, Peter and Mikhail, but he was refused. Magnitsky placed him in the same class as Chelyuskin. Vasily studied diligently, and already in the fall of 1717 he, together with the Chelyuskins, was sent to the Naval Academy. Pyotr Skobeltsyn, a gifted young man, went to St. Petersburg at the end of 1718, when a geodesy class was opened there.

It is clear that Magnitsky collected gifted children and especially nurtured them. In total for 1715-1716. 305 students of the School of Mathematics and Navigation left Moscow for the Maritime Academy. Mark Antipovich Golovin entered school in 1719, Dmitry Leontyevich Ovtsyn as a 17-year-old boy - in January 1721. After mastering the mandatory “mathematical sciences”, both entered the Naval Academy in 1722. From 394 students in 1724, by April 1725 Only 180 remained. From 1724 to 1727, the head of the Navigation School was Ipat Kalinovich Mukhanov, one of the first Russian captains. Then the management of the school again passed to Magnitsky, who taught at the Navigation School for 38 years, until the last days of his life. He was replaced by Ushakov.

The School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences brought the greatest benefit: it gave the army and navy many officers - engineers, artillerymen, sailors and other specialists. Some went to the navy or other industries, others stayed at school, where they helped professors, and then became teachers. The transfer of the highest navigation class to St. Petersburg did not break the connection between the Sukharev Tower and the fleet. It was still called the “school of Admiral Count Apraksin”, or the Admiralty school. The school took on a preparatory character and supplied students to the Naval Academy or naval artillery, as well as engineering and artillery schools.

Nartov Andrey Konstantinovich

School graduates were needed everywhere. After graduating from school, A.K. Nartov invented the world's first lathe with a caliper. There were also architects among the graduates. For example, the Russian architect Ivan Fedorovich Michurin (1700-1763) from the Kostroma province entered the school to study in 1718, and upon graduation he was apprenticed to the architect N. Michetti, who in those years worked on the construction of a palace in Strelna near St. Petersburg. Then he studied in Holland, and in 1731 he moved to Moscow, where he began drawing up a plan for the city, which received the name Michurinsky. In 1733-1741 A graduate of the school, the future “chief Moscow architect” Dmitry Vasilyevich Ukhtomsky, worked under his leadership. In the 1720s. The famous architect Savva Ivanovich Chevakinsky studied at the school (born into a family of Moscow nobles in 1709 or 1713), and in 1729 he was transferred to the Naval Academy, from where he fled...

Ukhtomsky Dmitry Vasilievich – Red Gate

Chevakinsky Savva Ivanovich – St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral

Since 1723, only noblemen were admitted to the school (now called the “Moscow Academy”). After Peter in 1727, out of the established set of 500 people, only 181 were available. The “old-timers,” who pretended to study for years, were ordered to be sent to sailors, the rest to be checked, and those who had completed their studies to be sent to St. Petersburg to the Admiralty Collegium for determination. The remaining ones should be supplemented to 500 from minors from 12 to 17 years old and determine the training time. In 1726, only 6 people got into the Admiralty College; the rest, adding years to 17 years, went to the regiments.

In 1731, Mikhail Lomonosov, who arrived in Moscow, visited the school: “... he popped into the digital school that was in the Sukharev Tower, but this “science” seemed not enough to him” (Morozov A.A. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. M., 1955. P. 112); The coryphaeus was lying - he was not accepted as a non-nobleman, and on January 15 he submitted an application for enrollment in the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where he introduced himself as the son of a priest.

The story continued. In 1734, a graduate of the Navigation School, Secretary of the Senate Ivan Kirillovich Kirilov, was going to go to the southeast, to the Ufa province, to put in order the southeastern border of the Russian state. By decree of the Empress, he was ordered to be “a priest from among the scientists from the Spassky school or someone worthy.” On September 2, 1734, the rector of the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, Archimandrite Stefan of the Spassky School Monastery, nominated a 23-year-old student of the school of rhetoric, Mikhail Lomonosov, as a candidate. But then it turned out that Lomonosov’s father, Vasily Dorofeev’s son, was not the priest of the Church of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Kholmogory, but was a simple peasant paid a capitation salary. The meeting of the two great sons of Russia did not take place.

In 1731, a school enrollment of 100 people was established. In this form, the Moscow Mathematical, or, as it was also called, the Admiralty School or Academy, continued to exist until 1752. Then the Admiralty Office was transferred from the Kremlin to the Sukharev Tower, which existed here for quite a long time - until 1806.

Thanks to the activities of Peter I, already at the beginning of the 18th century, Russia was a vast multinational state where absolutism was established. The strengthening of Russia's role on the world stage was facilitated by its military might. Peter's reform of the army and navy created the conditions for solving foreign policy problems throughout the 18th century. The development of market relations required not only the implementation of reforms within the country, but also the expansion of economic, political, and cultural ties between Russia and Western European and Eastern countries.

To implement economic reforms, Peter I needed trained national personnel. To do this, he used two ways: training specialists from among Russian people abroad and creating his own state education system. It was during this period that Russia began to look at Europe as a school where one could learn both science and skills.

Peter considered the restructuring of school affairs to be one of the leading tasks of the state. Already at the beginning of the century, secular state schools of various types appeared. The new schools had a pronounced character of a real educational institution with a professional bias.

In 1701, a school of “mathematical and navigational sciences” was opened in Moscow, which trained sailors, engineers, artillerymen, surveyors, architects, teachers, clerks, craftsmen, etc. The head of the school was Farvarson, a professor at the University of Aberdeen, invited by Peter from England. Two more people arrived with him as teachers. Later, L. F. Magnitsky, the author of the textbook “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers...” (1703), played a significant role in teaching at the Navigation School. Students were ordered to be recruited “voluntarily, others even more so under compulsion.”

The decree of Peter I dated January 14, 1701 stated: “The Great Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich, the autocrat of all Great and Lesser and White Russia...indicated with his personal command the great sovereign...to be mathematical and navigational, that is, nautical and cunning sciences. In the teachers of those sciences, be born in the English land: in mathematics - Andrei Danilov's son Farkhvarson, in navigation - Stepan Gvyn, and the knight Gryz; and to teach those sciences to all in supplying management in the Armory to the boyar Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin and his comrades, and to select those sciences for teaching voluntarily, but others even more so under compulsion; and provide daily food for the needy for food, using arithmetic or geometry: if someone is found to be somewhat skilled, five altyns a day; and for others, a hryvnia or less, having examined each of the arts of learning; and for those sciences, to determine a courtyard in Kadashev workshop chamber, called a large canvas, and about cleaning that courtyard, send your Great Sovereign decree to the workshop chamber of the bedchamber Gavrila Ivanovich Golovin, and, having taken that courtyard and having seen all the necessary needs in it, build from the income of the Armory chambers."

At school they studied arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, astronomy and mathematical geography. To prepare for studying at the school, two primary classes were opened: a Russian school for teaching reading and writing and a digital school for teaching elementary arithmetic. There were at least 200 people studying at the school; the full complement of students was determined to be 500 people.

Students entered at the age of 12-17 years, and sometimes at 20 years old. There was no specific training period. Students received food money (3-5 altyn per day)…lived partly at school, partly nearby in rented apartments... According to the decree of 1701, students were threatened with a very high fine for absent days (“nets”): for the first day 5 rubles. (a very large sum at that time), for the second 10 rubles, for each next 15 rubles. The fine was collected using law: they beat people publicly until their parents or friends contributed money. If parents owned any property, it could be confiscated to pay fines for school truancy. For escaping from school, the death penalty was imposed; relatives for petitioning for the release of their children from school were threatened with hard labor.

It was also difficult to study because the teachers did not know the Russian language; the textbooks, although they were translated into Russian, were written so incomprehensibly that it was impossible to retell them in your own words, you had to learn them by heart. But, despite all the difficulties, the number of officers graduated from Russian schools grew year by year and by the 20s of the 18th century. Russia has stopped inviting foreigners to serve in the navy, because “they have enough of their own Russian officers.”

In 1715, the senior classes of the school were transferred to St. Petersburg, and the Maritime Academy was created on their basis. It functioned on the basis of strict discipline, like a military educational institution. Peter ordered “to calm the screaming and disorder, select retired good soldiers from the guard, and have one person in each cell for training, and have a whip in their hands, and if any of the students begins to riot, beat them with it, no matter what their last name.” was not".

There were 300 students studying at the Academy. Students studied arithmetic, geometry, artillery, navigation, fortification, geography, shipbuilding, drawing, and dancing.

From its founding, the Maritime Academy was planned as a privileged educational institution for the nobility. However, in the first quarter of the 18th century, education was of interest to few. Even the nobility was reluctant to enter the Naval Academy. Therefore, the class composition in it was quite varied.

The Naval Academy, unlike the Navigation School, was a military educational institution. Her students were armed with guns, stood guard, and wore uniforms. In 1720, Peter I adopted a naval charter, which required high discipline and responsibility of everyone for the work entrusted to him. At one time, midshipmen were forbidden to marry “under the penalty of three years of hard labor.” Then this requirement was somewhat weakened: “Do not allow anyone to get married before 25 years of age, and that there be a genuine certificate, so that there is no deception and falsehood in years...”.

Education at the Maritime Academy began in preparatory classes, where literacy and numeracy were taught. Those who successfully completed them were transferred to nautical classes. At the Academy, in comparison with the Navigation School, not only special, but also general education was significantly expanded: along with mathematical and military disciplines, it taught politics, heraldry, civil laws, civil architecture and other “gentry sciences,” as well as seven foreign languages (apparently to choose from): English, French, German, Swedish, Danish, Italian, Latin.

The military part of the training was supposed to consist, according to the Admiralty regulations, of artillery, navigation and fortification, training with muskets, etc.

At first, the naval guards studied from the same textbooks as the students of the Navigation School. January 2, 1721 A personal decree was issued by the Admiralty Collegium on the creation of a printing house at the Maritime Academy.

After the death of Peter I, with the accession of Anna Ioannovna to the throne, the situation in the country changed. Funding for the fleet was sharply reduced. Naval education also fell into decline. The number of students at the Maritime Academy in 1731 Reduced to 150 people. There was so little money allocated for the maintenance of the educational institution that the sea guards were poor and hungry. In such a situation, rich nobles stopped sending their children to study at the Naval Academy, and it was forbidden to admit commoners into it.

The education of future sailors did not exhaust all the needs of Russian society. From 1703 to 1712, the Pushkar (artillery), Engineering, and Hospital (at a military hospital) schools were established, and a Multilingual School operated, in which new Western European languages ​​were studied in addition to Latin. A decree of 1714 prescribed the opening of numerical schools, in which students of the Navigation School or the Maritime Academy became teachers. For the first time in the history of a Russian school, a teacher was given a constant salary - 36 rubles a year, although it was paid sloppily.

The need to train competent artillery personnel became obvious at the beginning of the Northern War, when the Swedes captured most of the artillery. A. A. Vinius, Peter’s friend and comrade-in-arms, restored it in a short time by pouring church bells into the cannon. It was with his assistance that the “Moscow Pushkar School” was established and built at the Cannon Yard, and many “iron masters” who knew how to cast cannons were summoned to Russia.

The Pushkar schools, like the Navigation schools, consisted of a Russian school, a numerical school and a special school, where they studied trigonometry, drawing, and military sciences. Commoners who graduated from the first two schools were sent as privates to the artillery, and nobles, after completing their training, were sent there as officers.

Education in these institutions was forced, which led to the extinction of digital schools. If in 1722 there were 42 schools, then in 1744 there were only 8 left. Children fled from schools. In 1726, 322 students did not return. Those caught were put in stocks and returned to school, punished with whips, and the parents often hid the runners.

There was no unified teaching system at that time. Subjects were studied sequentially; there was no uniform exam time. Students were transferred “from one science to another as they learned.” The study methods were primitive and suffered from major shortcomings - the degree of success was determined by the number of pages memorized.

Along with digital ones, other primary schools appeared under Peter I. On the initiative of V.N. Tatishchev in the Urals in 1721. Mining schools were opened, where, in addition to literacy and arithmetic, they studied mining. Peter I believed that “children of carpenters and other craftsmen should be taught to read and write, numbers and plat-geometry, so that later they can become good craftsmen. Why have a special school? At the behest of the Tsar, the Admiralty opened such schools at the shipyards of Voronezh, St. Petersburg, Revel (Tallinn), and Kronstadt. Peter I was aware of the significance of the schools he created for the future of the country: “... I was pleased that many schools were organized based on mathematics. And for languages, he ordered schools to be established in dioceses and provinces, and hoping, although I will not see the fruits, they will not weaken in that useful intention of mine for the fatherland.”

According to Peter I in 1706, the “Military Hospital” was opened in Moscow for the treatment of lower ranks. Under her, a Hospital School was created, in which the Tsar ordered “to recruit 50 people from foreigners and Russians from all ranks for pharmaceutical science.”

At school they taught anatomy, taught how to do bandages and operations, and treat therapeutic diseases. Students studied medicinal plants in the hospital's "pharmaceutical garden" and learned how to make medicine from them. The school was led by the Dutch doctor Nikolai Lambertovich Bidloo and the Russian doctor Andrei Rybkin. In 1712, N. L. Bidloo reported to Peter I about the work of the hospital and the training of the first Russian doctors there: “More than 1000 of my patients have recovered. I am not ashamed to recommend the best of my students, for they not only have knowledge of one or another disease that occurs on the body and qualifies for the rank of surgeon, but also general art about all those diseases, from the head even to the feet, with genuine and ordinary training, how to treat them... we learned very quickly.”

In 1798 The Hospital School founded by Peter I was reorganized into the Moscow Medical-Surgical Academy and continues to operate under this name to this day. The hospital created by Peter is now called the Main Military Clinical Hospital named after N. N. Burdenko. Military personnel are treated there and also conduct scientific research related to military medicine. Sick and wounded Russian soldiers in all wars were treated in this hospital.

The contribution of Peter I to the development of domestic education is difficult to overestimate. Through his efforts, a system of higher education was created out of nothing, which has been successfully evolving for more than 300 years.



Ermakova Lyubov 04/01/2019 at 23:55

Few people know, but the first navigation school in Russia, which trained professional sailors, was opened... in land-based Moscow in 1701. The first noble students were not at all distinguished by an ardent desire to comprehend marine science, for which they often received rods and fines, and sometimes were sent to drive piles at hard labor in St. Petersburg.

“Every potentate who has a single land army has one hand, and who has a fleet has both hands,” the great Russian Emperor Peter used to say. So that his empire could have both hands, the king worked day and night. The fleet was Pyotr Alekseevich’s favorite brainchild. The ships could not exist without sailors, who actually did not exist in the country. The most important task was to educate our specialists.

After the victory at Azov, the tsar, at a meeting of the Boyar Duma, presented a note that it was more convenient and closer to fight by sea than by land, and that the country needed a fleet of forty ships. The Duma decided that there should be sea vessels. In 1696, 35 young men were sent abroad to study maritime affairs, 23 of whom bore the title of prince. Next year - 150 captains, sergeants and soldiers.

In the spring of 1699 they returned home. In April, Peter took exams in Voronezh. Normal successes were demonstrated on ships that... were at anchor. The newly minted sailors were unable to control the ships afloat (as well as the crew). Of the 72 nobles sent to Italy, only four were given credit by the tsar. The rest were asked to go to a foreign land for the second time for training, but at their own expense - or to return the money spent from the treasury on the trip and training. Young people were sent abroad for knowledge until 1711.

Prince Lvov, who supervised the students, asked Peter not to send navigators to England anymore, since they were of little use - “... they learned to drink more and spend money, I can’t pay for it, and now they want to put me in prison for debts.” The need to train our personnel in the Fatherland was obvious.

Education was always a priority for the king. After his first trip abroad, Peter dreamed of founding a maritime school. Finally, in 1701, by his Decree, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow - the first and largest real (professional) school in Europe. At first it was under the jurisdiction of the armory and was located in the Sukharev Tower. Then, in 1706, it was subordinated to the navy.

The training program was prepared personally by the Tsar. The nobles sent their children to the new educational institution with great reluctance. They were taken “under duress”: a military patrol came to the house to pick up future students. The rest were taken as “volunteers” - those who were not nobles themselves wanted to study. Children of serfs were prohibited from being admitted to schools. Almost all students, depending on the subject and their success, received “feed money,” and the poorest received clothing. The students lived in the school itself, some rented apartments. The discipline was the strictest. Just a few - fines, rods, regardless of origin. Those who did not show up for school after the holidays were sent to hard labor in St. Petersburg to drive piles. Escaping from school was punished strictly. If a student could not complete all the sciences by the age of 21, he was sent as a simple sailor to the navy.

In 1715, to improve the quality of training of naval officers, the Navigation School was transformed. The "junior classes" remained in Moscow, and the navigation department was transferred to St. Petersburg. This department became known as the Maritime Academy. Every year, the graduates of the Moscow Navigation School were sent to the Maritime Academy - the first in Russia.

For the first time in Russia, an assistant director for educational affairs appears on the staff. Naval Guard officers are appointed to his position. For the first time, the students themselves are on guard and on duty - at the gates, in the halls, at the cash desk. The composition of the disciplines was established personally by the king. In addition to the main subjects, the schedule includes fencing, drawing, and dancing. Navigation and astronomy were studied in the form of practical problems: determining the latitude of the ship's position by the meridial height of the Sun, determining the declination of the compass, the time of high and low waters. Students easily coped not only with tables and scales, but also with logarithms. Theorems were studied, as in the Navigation School, without proof, memorized as axioms. We studied the Copernican system, the declination of the Sun according to Amsterdam time... the training period was six years and nine months.

Since 1718, academy graduates have not been assigned to ships. They did their internship as part of a midshipman company at the academy itself. The company consisted of 300 people. In winter, midshipmen spent 12 hours a week studying navigation, shipbuilding, artillery, drawing, fortification, rigging, cannon and rifle shooting, and drill training. And in the summer they went sailing and every day, under the guidance of a senior officer, were engaged in the management of the ship, artillery, and navigation. And only after 3-5 years of sailing, depending on their success, they passed exams and were promoted to midshipman if there were vacancies. Among the exams were control of a ship in peacetime and in battle.

The fleet was growing quickly, and there was a constant need for knowledgeable personnel. Gradually, specialists from Russia replaced foreign ones, who were attracted by high wages and privileges. This is what Peter the Great was striving for. On April 16, 1722, the emperor ordered the Admiralty to open maritime training schools. Only Russian subjects were allowed to be admitted to these schools. Peter did not feel trust in foreigners, so he encouraged them to resign and tried to get rid of them as quickly as possible.

It was under Pyotr Alekseevich that Russian naval commanders won their first naval victories - with the Swedes at Cape Gangut in 1714 (they destroyed 10 enemy ships) and Grengam Island in 1720, thanks to this victory the Northern War ended. By 1725, the Russian fleet had become the most powerful fleet in the Baltic. 48 battleships and frigates, 787 galleys. The total number of the team is 28,000 people.

A country that did not have ports (except for Arkhangelsk) and a fleet became a powerful maritime power. Whose flag, St. Andrew's banner, was greeted with salutes in advance by ships of other powers. Thus the dream of the Russian Tsar came true, whom his contemporaries did not take seriously - they considered him stupider and weaker than the Swedish King Charles XII.

The history of the creation of a navigation school in Russia by Peter I

The idea of ​​creating a navigation school in Russia was expressed by Peter I back in 1697. Having set himself the goal of mastering the science of shipbuilding, the young tsar undertook a year and a half trip to Holland. For six and a half months, under the name of Peter Mikhailov, he worked as a carpenter at the East India Company shipyard in Saardam. There he also sent one hundred young people who were to become acquainted with maritime affairs. Then Peter I moved to England, where at the royal shipyard in Dettford, under the leadership of A. Dean, he drew up ship drawings and improved in the theory of shipbuilding. The idea of ​​creating a domestic naval school did not leave him, and the next year, 1698, he invited three Englishmen to the Russian service - Aberdeen University professor Henry Farvarson, who in Russia called himself Andrei Danilovich Farvarson, Stephen Gvyn (Stepan Gvyn) and Richard Gris (Knight Grace).

Before this, three or four Russians were sent to ships carrying goods abroad to become familiar with the ship’s equipment and command words. Sometimes Russian ships were farmed out to foreign skippers, who were supposed to train the Russian crew along the way. As a result, Russian skippers appeared who were trusted by ships.

Leonty Filippovich Magnitsky, a graduate of the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, one of the most educated people of that time, who stood out for his talent, knowledge and good human qualities, was invited to work at the future school. Having essentially studied mathematics on his own, he compiled the textbook “Arithmetic, that is, numerical science, etc.” (1703), in which he outlined the foundations of arithmetic, elementary algebra, practical geometry, collected data on the calculation of trigonometric tables, as well as initial information from astronomical science, geodesy and navigation. Peter I had sympathy for L. F. Magnitsky, who, “like a magnet,” attracted students to himself.

The decree on the establishment of the school of “Mathematical and navigational, that is, nautical and cunning arts of teaching” was signed on January 14, 1701. This day is considered the birthday of the Navigation school, which was supposed to train personnel primarily for the fleet, without which it would be impossible to return lost

Petr Mikhailov works at a shipyard in Amsterdam. Artist D. A. Shmarinov.

Training of Russian stewards in Venice in nautical sciences from M. Martinovich, 1698.

Russia of lands and seas. In his work “Secret Diplomacy of the 18th Century,” K. Marx wrote: “Not a single great nation has ever existed or could have existed in a position so remote from the sea as was originally the state of Peter the Great; no nation has ever tolerated its sea coasts at the mouths of rivers being cut off from it; Russia could not leave the mouth of the Neva, this natural outlet for the products of Northern Russia, in the hands of the Swedes... Peter I took possession of everything that was absolutely necessary for the normal development of his country.”

Organizationally and administratively, the school was subordinate to the Armory Chamber, headed by the boyar Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin “and his comrades.” The school was originally supposed to be located in Zamoskvorechye, on Polotnyany Yard. The premises, however, turned out to be completely unsuitable for housing the school, including its residential and economic services. Zamoskvorechye in those days was considered the outskirts of the capital.

The final choice fell on the Sukharev (Sretenskaya) tower with all the extensions and lands attached to it. The appearance of the building, in which the students of the first maritime school had to learn the basics of mathematics and navigation, is associated with the once existing earthen rampart, in which the city gates were crowned with watchtowers and fortifications. The Sretensky Gate protected the entrance to Moscow from 1st Meshchanskaya Street (now Mira Ave.). An outpost was located near them - the Sretenskaya guard service with a ramp and a mytnaya hut, where the office of the governor of the outpost, his chambers, chambers for examining administrative and judicial cases, and the place where duties were collected from passing carts and luggage were located. In 1698, when the Streltsy rebellion began, a regiment under the command of L.P. Sukharev was stationed in Sretenskaya Sloboda, who refused to oppose Peter I. From that time on, the stone tower, built in 1692-1695, began to be called. on the site of the Sretensky Gate, named after him - Sukhareva.

The building of the Sukharev (Sretenskaya) tower. From the collection of the Architectural Institute named after. A. V. Shchuseva

The four-tiered structure with a tent met the requirements of the school owners. It was placed in a “decent” and high place. The latter, as well as the presence of a tower, “where you can freely see the horizon,” allowed the inhabitants of the house to make observations and observe the celestial sphere along the entire horizon. High ceilings and bright rooms, which, however, were cold from the winds, provided an excellent opportunity to work with maps and drawings. The galleries of the second tier, encircling the building, seemed to resemble the quarterdeck - the most honorable place on a sailboat. The eastern end of the house could be “seen” as the bow of a ship, the western part as its stern. The third tier housed classrooms and a “foil hall” designed for fencing lessons and gymnastic exercises. There is mention that an amphitheater was attached to the western (“aft”) part of the building - a storage facility for a “masquerade boat,” that is, a model of a sailing ship used “for fun.”

On especially solemn days, for example, on the day of peace with Sweden in 1721, this boat, decorated with sails, colored with flags during the day, and with lanterns at night, was driven through the streets of Moscow in order to remind the average person about the role of the fleet in the fate of Russia.

The noticeable structure was in full view of the townspeople, including those who condemned the new order. Hostility and distrust of the new was transferred to the “tower”. The unusual-looking structure was considered the home of evil spirits and warlocks. The average person easily mistook tables of logarithms for signs created by “German”, i.e., non-Russian-speaking sorcerers, and “looking into the sky through strange pipes,” like smoke from a chemical laboratory, for witchcraft. Such inventions, to which the illiterate layman was eager, played into the hands of the boyars, opponents of Peter’s reforms.

Not only well-born youngsters were included in the teaching, but also those who showed a desire for knowledge and love for their homeland. Noteworthy are the words of the decree on the establishment of the school: “To elect those who want to voluntarily, but others, even more so, under compulsion.”

The fact is that the Navigation School, the only one of its kind, was experiencing serious difficulties recruiting students. Wealthy parents viewed attracting teenagers to school as a call to the tsar's service. Before Peter I, the only acceptable procedure was considered to be the time-honored procedure, according to which young people from the nobility routinely, with advance notice, arrived at the appointed place and time (usually in the spring), each on his own horse, in armor and with weapons, together with the courtyard people and supplies. provisions for the entire training camp. As a rule, such a warrior did not feel any special hardships, did not burden himself with service, and in early autumn he left for his child-loving parents, having finally heard gratitude for his service to the king. From the beginning of the 17th century. the young nobleman was called up for lifelong service in the regular army, from which only serious illness or death could be delivered. He could retire only after reaching a ripe old age.

According to the adopted charter, the Navigatskaya school was supposed to be staffed by “children of nobles, clerks, clerks, from the houses of boyars and other ranks” aged 12 to 17 years, however, due to the resistance of the boyars and fear of the unusual, it was not possible to recruit 500 students, and then the upper limit of the age limit was raised to 20 years. But this time the task was not completed. That is why they began to accept “all classes” into the school, except for serfs.

Education at the Navigation School included three levels: “Russian school”, “digital school”, “special classes”. Unliterate recruits went to primary school to learn reading, writing, and basic grammar. At the second stage, students studied arithmetic, geometry and trigonometry. For students from the lower classes, their studies ended there, and they were appointed to various positions in the Admiralty, clerks in orders, pharmacists, and also to other positions in other departments. Russia, which was not rich in special educational institutions, but was starting a new life, needed knowledgeable people, so the school, nicknamed Navigatskaya, supplied not only sailors. Children of the gentry, who successfully passed the intermediate exam, continued their studies and acquired knowledge in geography, astronomy, geodesy and navigation. (The gentry is a noble class introduced by the reform of Peter I to replace the estates of boyar Rus': clan nobles, boyars, ordinary people, clans with patronymics).

The school provided for the sequential completion of disciplines: only having studied one, the class began to master the next. This was convenient for the teacher; the emotions of students, depressed by the monotony of educational life, were not taken into account. Most lessons favored cramming definitions and unproven rules. The student should not go into reasoning; his answer should have sounded “as it is written in the book.” To the teacher’s question: “What is arithmetic?” - was supposed to answer: “Arithmetic,
or numerator, is an honest art, unenviable and understandable to everyone, most useful and much praised, invented by the most ancient and the newest, who at different times were the most powerful arithmeticians.” The teacher asked students who were more “advanced” in knowledge: “What is flat navigation?” and “In what places on earth is it used?” The answer had to contain exactly 80 words: “Nothing else is called flat navigation, but only straight-line navigation on the flat surface of the sea, and it is used by all the current Navklers when they were near the equator, extremely and truthfully... Round navigation is the sea “Everyone’s voyage is shorter, but it’s difficult; you can sail a ship with strength.”

Training in a naval school, still only in name, was difficult for the pioneers. The progress of the classes was monitored not only by the teacher, but also by the “guy” present in the classroom with a whip, who, without warning or pity, paid tribute to the parents of the offenders for pranks in class, conversations or “causing inconvenience to a neighbor on the bench.” It is necessary to note here, however, that democracy in dealing with students ended there. Pupils of different classes, collected in one class, essentially did not have equal rights. Not only the appointment of a graduate depended on the class, but even a place on a bench in the classroom, at the dinner table. Any violation was punished with rods, usually on Saturdays after the bath. The “noble” could pay off the flogging, provide a replacement, or, at worst, accept the punishment clothed. Students of the “bad type” were torn by “removing your pants.”

Students were expected to be fined for absenteeism, for repeated absence, for third time, etc. The scale of the punishments is illustrated by the following example: in 1707, in just five months, the school collected “fine money” of 8,545 rubles in cash, and in a year, probably about

17 thousand rubles, i.e. 75% of the amount of maintenance of the Navigation School (for 1706 the estimate was 22,459 rubles). As can be seen, the system of ensuring class attendance was beneficial for the state. Debtors were treated harshly. In response to requests to reduce fines for good reasons, F. M. Apraksin, an associate of Peter I, answered negatively and recommended “to strike on the right until those fines are paid in full.”

The activities of foreign teachers called into Russian service left much to be desired. Some could be accused of indifference to the concerns of Russian students, of elementary promiscuity and laziness (A. Farvarson’s assistants were guilty of this), and lack of initiative. The blind faith of the leading officials in Western authorities invariably served them as a reliable support.

But in general, the role of the Navigation School in training is positive. It was she who (without belittling the role of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy) gave the state its own engineers, builders, architects, artillerymen, surveyors, and statesmen. The school trained the first Russian naval officers. The shameful need for any country to hire foreigners to protect someone else's fatherland has disappeared. Already the first graduates of the school glorified Russia with their achievements in science and military affairs. The first surveyors, hydrographers and topographers who emerged from the walls of the Navigation School took part in the study of remote areas of the state, drawing up maps, and the first atlas of Russia. Streams of knowledge gained, and sometimes suffered, in this school gave rise to rivers of knowledge that spread across the country - students often became teachers.

Without significant changes, the school existed until 1715, then, by decision of Peter I, it was transferred to St. Petersburg, which three years earlier had been declared the new capital of Russia. They were left in the Sukharev Tower