Entente and triple alliance. Epicenters of contradictions and military-political blocs. Entente - who was part and how it was formed

The Entente (from the French Entente, Entente cordiale - cordial agreement) is an alliance of Great Britain, France and Russia (Triple Accord), formed in 1904-1907 and united more than 20 states during the First World War (1914-1918) against the coalition of the Central Powers , including the USA, Japan, Italy.

The creation of the Entente was preceded by the conclusion of the Russian-French alliance in 1891-1893 in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance (1882), led by Germany.

The formation of the Entente is associated with the demarcation of the great powers in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, caused by the new balance of forces in the international arena and the aggravation of contradictions between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy on the one hand, France, Great Britain and Russia, on the other.
The sharp aggravation of the Anglo-German rivalry caused by the colonial and commercial expansion of Germany in Africa, the Middle East and other regions, the naval arms race, prompted Great Britain to seek an alliance with France and then with Russia.

In 1904, a British-French agreement was signed, followed by a Russian-British agreement (1907). These treaties actually formalized the creation of the Entente.

Russia and France were allies bound by mutual military obligations defined by the military convention of 1892 and subsequent decisions of the general staffs of both states. The British government, despite contacts between the British and French general staffs and the naval commanders established in 1906 and 1912, did not take on certain military obligations. The formation of the Entente softened the differences between its members, but did not eliminate them. These disagreements were revealed more than once, which Germany used to try to tear Russia away from the Entente. However, the strategic calculations and aggressive plans of Germany doomed these attempts to failure.

In turn, the Entente countries, preparing for a war with Germany, took steps to sever Italy and Austria-Hungary from the Triple Alliance. Although until the beginning of the First World War, Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance, the ties of the Entente countries with it grew stronger, and in May 1915 Italy went over to the side of the Entente.

After the outbreak of the First World War, in September 1914 in London, an agreement was signed between Great Britain, France and Russia not to conclude a separate peace, replacing the allied military treaty. In October 1915, Japan joined this agreement, which in August 1914 declared war on Germany.

In the course of the war, new states gradually joined the Entente. By the end of the war, the states of the anti-German coalition (not counting Russia, which left the war after the October Revolution of 1917) included Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, Italy, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua , Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador, Japan.

The main participants of the Entente - Great Britain, France and Russia, from the first days of the war entered into secret negotiations on the goals of the war. The British-French-Russian agreement (1915) provided for the transfer of the Black Sea Straits to Russia, the London Treaty (1915) between the Entente and Italy determined the territorial acquisitions of Italy at the expense of Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Albania. Sykes-Picot Treaty (1916) divided Turkey's Asian possessions between Great Britain, France and Russia.

During the first three years of the war, Russia pulled off significant enemy forces, coming quickly to the aid of the Allies as soon as Germany launched serious offensives in the West.

After the October Revolution of 1917, Russia's withdrawal from the war did not disrupt the victory of the Entente over the German bloc, for Russia fully fulfilled its allied obligations, unlike England and France, which more than once thwarted their promises of assistance. Russia made it possible for England and France to mobilize all their resources. The struggle of the Russian army allowed the United States to expand its production power, create an army and replace Russia, which had emerged from the war - the United States officially declared war on Germany in April 1917.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the Entente organized an armed intervention against Soviet Russia - on December 23, 1917, Great Britain and France signed an agreement. In March 1918, the Entente's intervention began, but the campaigns against Soviet Russia ended in failure. The goals that the Entente set for themselves were achieved after Germany's defeat in the First World War, but the strategic alliance between the leading Entente countries, Great Britain and France, remained in the following decades.

The general political and military leadership of the bloc's activities in various periods was carried out by: Inter-Allied Conferences (1915, 1916, 1917, 1918), the Supreme Council of the Entente, the Inter-Union (Executive) Military Committee, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces, the main headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, commanders-in-chief and headquarters on separate theaters of military operations. Such forms of cooperation were used as bilateral and multilateral meetings and consultations, contacts of commanders-in-chief and general staffs through representatives of the allied armies and military missions. However, the difference in military-political interests and goals, military doctrines, incorrect assessment of the forces and means of the opposing coalitions, their military capabilities, the remoteness of the theaters of operations, the approach to war as a short-term campaign did not allow the creation of a unified and permanent military-political leadership of the coalition in the war.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources

The beginning of the last century was marked by a sharp exacerbation of contradictions between the world's major powers. The main rivalry flared up between England and Germany, who led the opposing military-political blocs: the Entente and the Triple Alliance.

Back in 1904, an agreement was reached between Paris and London, which dealt with the elimination of disputed territorial issues between them, - on the delimitation of their spheres of interest in Africa. Although it did not say anything about Germany, the agreement was essentially directed against her, since Berlin began to openly declare the need to redistribute the world. And this created a threat to the colonial possessions of London and Paris. German claims to England and France pushed Paris to strengthen ties with Russia and forced British diplomacy to achieve the same, especially since Petersburg's mediation was required in resolving disputes in the Asian region to delimit spheres of influence.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RUSSIA AND GERMANY

Other problems in the world have also become aggravated. Japan expressed claims to the terms of the Portsmouth Peace. Austro-Hungarian and German capitals broke through to Turkey. Berlin strove to undermine British rule in the sea and intensively strengthened the power of its naval forces. The arms race unfolded.

In 1907, at the initiative of Russia, the second international Hague conference was held, in which 44 states participated. It adopted 13 conventions, including: on the limitation of armaments, on the introduction of an arbitration tribunal for the peaceful resolution of international conflicts, on the laws and conditions of warfare, etc.

In the ruling circles of Russia, the assessment of the current events (especially in relation to Germany) was contradictory. It should be noted that Berlin actively sought to draw Russia into the channel of its policy, to split its international alliances. So, in 1905, during a meeting of Nicholas II with Wilhelm II in Bjork, the Kaiser persuaded the tsar to sign (secretly from the then Minister of Foreign Affairs V.N.Lamsdorf) an agreement containing the obligations of Russia and Germany on mutual assistance in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties of any European power. Despite the extreme indignation of Wilhelm II, the Bjerk agreement, which was in conflict with the alliance agreement with France, did not have any practical results and in the fall of 1905 was essentially canceled by Russia. The logic of the development of international relations ultimately pushed the autocracy towards the Entente.

The transition of Russia to the camp of Germany's opponents was marked, but not immediately. A. P. Izvolsky, who was appointed foreign minister, strove to achieve rapprochement with Britain without breaking off relations with Germany. To do this, he planned to conclude agreements on the most pressing issues with both Germany and Austria-Hungary, and with England. Simultaneously, Izvolsky intended to regulate relations with Japan. Such a policy allowed Russia to get the respite necessary to resolve internal problems, restore military potential, and was supposed to provide it with an advantageous position in the upcoming Anglo-German conflict.

JAPAN'S CLAIMS

After the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, relations between Russia and Japan remained tense. Tokyo made a number of demands aimed at expanding its influence in the Far East to the detriment of Russian interests. The militarist circles of Japan believed that "the peace was concluded prematurely" and strove for new seizures in the Far East, primarily for the complete annexation of Korea and South Manchuria. They began to increase the army and navy. In Russia, there were also calls for revenge. And Germany fueled these sentiments and pushed both countries to a new military conflict. At the same time, Berlin promised Russia its help and put forward the idea of \u200b\u200ba German-Russian-American coalition against Japan. Having entered into negotiations with Russia, Tokyo presented it with demands to expand its sphere of influence along the Songhua River in Manchuria, up to the inclusion of the Chinese Eastern Railway, as well as free shipping along the Amur, preferential transportation of goods across Siberia and virtually unlimited freedom of fishing along the Russian Far East coast.

In 1907, a Russian-Japanese agreement on political issues was signed. The parties agreed to maintain the "status quo" in the Far East. Northern Manchuria and Outer Mongolia were recognized as Russia's sphere of influence, while South Manchuria and Korea were recognized as Japan's.

BOSNIAN CRISIS

In 1908, Izvolsky, in the course of negotiations with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary, A. Erenthal, agreed to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, occupied by the Austrians after the Berlin Congress, to Austria-Hungary. In exchange, he received Erenthal's promise not to object to the opening of the Black Sea straits for Russian military vessels. However, England and France did not support the claims of the tsarist diplomacy. Izvolsky's attempt to solve the problem of the straits failed. Austria-Hungary, meanwhile, announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia in March 1909, demanding the recognition of this act. The tsarist government, realizing that it was not ready for a decisive objection, was forced to yield.

BALKAN WARS

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 became the prologue to the First World War. Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, united as a result of the active efforts of Russian diplomacy, began a war against Turkey and defeated it. The winners soon quarreled with each other. Germany and Austria-Hungary, considering the formation of the Balkan Union as a success of Russian diplomacy, took steps aimed at its collapse, and pushed Bulgaria to oppose Serbia and Greece. During the second Balkan war, Bulgaria, against which Romania and Turkey also began hostilities, was defeated. All these events significantly exacerbated the Russian-German and Russian-Austrian contradictions. Turkey was increasingly subject to German influence.

THE BIRTH OF ANTANTA

The Russian government, realizing the country's unpreparedness for war and fearing (in case of defeat) a new revolution, sought to postpone the armed clash with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, in the conditions of a progressive deterioration in relations with its western neighbors, it tried to formalize allied relations with England. These attempts were unsuccessful, since London did not want to be bound by any obligations. Allied relations between Russia and France by 1914, however, significantly strengthened. In 1911-1913, at the meetings of the chiefs of the Russian and French general staffs, decisions were made that provided for an increase in the number of troops deployed against Germany in case of war. The naval headquarters of Britain and France concluded a naval convention, which entrusted the protection of the Atlantic coast of France to the English fleet, and the protection of England's interests in the Mediterranean to the French. The Entente, as a coalition of England, France and Russia, directed against the Triple Alliance, was becoming a threatening reality.

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A famous example of the confrontation of political blocs in the international arena is the clash of large countries during the 1900s.

During the period of tension before the events of the First World War, the strong players of the world arena united together to dictate their policies and have an advantage in solving foreign policy issues. In response, an alliance was created to counterbalance these events.

This is how the history of the confrontation begins, the basis of which was the Entente and the Triple Alliance. Another name is Antanta or Entente (translated as "heartfelt consent").

Countries - members of the Triple Alliance

The international military bloc, which was originally formed to strengthen hegemony, included the following list of countries (see table):

Germany - played a key role in the formation of the alliance, having concluded the first military agreement.
Austro-hungary - the second participant to join the German Empire.
Italy - joined the union last.

A little later, after the events of World War I, Italy was withdrawn from the bloc, but nevertheless the coalition did not disintegrate, but on the contrary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria were additionally included in it.

Creation of the Triple Alliance

The history of the Triple Alliance begins with an allied agreement between the German Empire and Austria-Hungary - these events took place in the Austrian city of Vienna in 1879.

The main point of the agreement was the obligation to enter hostilities on the side of the ally if aggression was made by the Russian Empire.

In addition, the pact enshrined the requirement to comply with the neutral side if the allies were attacked by someone other than Russia.

At the same time, Germany was worried about the strengthening position in the international arena of France. Therefore, Otto von Bismarck was looking for ways that would make it possible to push France into isolation.

Favorable conditions developed in 1882, when the Austrian Habsburgs were involved in the negotiations, which played a decisive role in the decision by Italy.

The secret alliance between Italy and the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc consisted in providing support by troops in the event of military aggression by France, as well as maintaining neutrality in an attack on one of the coalition member countries.

Purposes of the Triple Alliance in World War I

The main goal of the Triple Alliance on the eve of the war was to create such a military-political coalition, which in its power would oppose the alliance of the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France (opponents).

However, the participating countries pursued their own goals:

Due to the rapidly growing economy, the German Empire required as many resources as possible and, as a result, more colonies. The Germans also had claims to redistribute the spheres of influence in the world, aimed at the formation of German hegemony.
The objectives of Austria-Hungary were to establish control over the Balkan Peninsula. For the most part, the case was conducted in order to capture Serbia and some other Slavic countries.
The Italian side had territorial claims to Tunisia, and also sought to consolidate its access to the Mediterranean Sea, concluding it under its absolute control.

Entente - who was part and how it was formed

After the formation of the Triple Alliance, the distribution of forces in the international arena changed dramatically and led to a clash of colonial interests between England and the German Empire.

Expansive actions in the Middle East and Africa prompted Great Britain to act more actively, and they began negotiations for a military agreement with the Russian Empire and France.

The beginning of the definition of the Entente was laid in 1904when France and Great Britain entered into a pact, according to which all colonial claims on the African question were transferred under its protectorate.

At the same time, obligations for military support were confirmed only between France and the Russian Empire, while England in every possible way avoided such confirmation.

The emergence of this military-political bloc made it possible to level the differences between the major powers and make them more capable of resisting the aggression of the Triple Alliance.

Accession of Russia to the Entente

The events that marked the beginning of the pulling of the Russian Empire into the Entente bloc took place in 1892.

It was then that a powerful military agreement was concluded with France, according to which, in case of any aggression, an ally country would withdraw all available armed forces for mutual assistance.

At the same time, by 1906, tension was growing in relations between Russia and Japan, caused by the negotiations on the Portsmouth Treaty. This could provoke the loss of some of Russia's Far Eastern territories.

Realizing these facts, Foreign Minister Izvolsky headed for rapprochement with Great Britain. It was an auspicious move in history, since England and Japan were allies, and the agreement could settle mutual claims.

The success of Russian diplomacy was the signing of the Russian-Japanese agreement in 1907, according to which all territorial issues were settled. This greatly influenced the acceleration of negotiations with England - the date of August 31, 1907 marked the conclusion of the Russian-English agreement.

This fact was final, after which Russia finally joined the Entente.

The final design of the Entente

The final events that completed the formation of the Entente bloc were the signing of mutual agreements between Britain and France on the settlement of colonial issues in Africa.

This included the following documents:

The division of the territories of Egypt and Morocco was carried out.
The borders of England and France in Africa were clearly divided. Newfoundland completely ceded to Britain, France received part of the new territories in Africa.
Settlement of the Madagascar question.

These documents formed a bloc of alliances between the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France.

The plans of the Entente in the First World War

The main goal of the Entente on the eve of the First World War (1915) was to suppress the military superiority of Germany, which was planned to be carried out from several sides. This is, first of all, a war on two fronts with Russia and France, as well as a complete naval blockade by England.

At the same time, the members of the agreement had a personal interest:

England had a claim to the rapidly and steadily growing economy of Germany, the rate of production of which had an overwhelming effect on the British economy. In addition, Britain saw the German Empire as a military threat to its sovereignty.
France sought to reclaim the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, lost during the Franco-Prussian clash. These lands were also important to the economy due to the large amount of resources.
Tsarist Russia pursued its goals to spread influence over the important economic zone of the Mediterranean and to settle territorial claims to a number of Polish lands and territories in the Balkans.

The results of the confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance

The results of the confrontation following the First World War was the complete defeat of the Triple Alliance - Italy was lost, and the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires, which were part of the union, disintegrated. The system was destroyed in Germany, where the republic reigned.

For the Russian Empire, participation in the Entente and the First World War ended in civil clashes and revolution, which led to the collapse of the empire.

The Franco-Prussian War and its aftermath made profound changes in the system of international relations in Europe. First, the contradictions between France and Germany were not only not overcome, but, on the contrary, became even more acute. Each article of the Frankfurt Peace of 1871 concealed the danger of a new war, giving rise to revanchist sentiments in France and, at the same time, Germany's desire to get rid of this danger by the final defeat of its western neighbor.

On the other hand, the consequences of the war and the Franco-German contradictions had a rather noticeable impact on the relations of other European states. Strengthening its foreign policy expansion, Bismarck's Germany took into account that in the event of a conflict with any European state, France would certainly take advantage of the opportunity for revenge, and therefore sought to leave it in international isolation. France, weakened after the war, sought to gain time to restore its military potential and was actively looking for allies on the continent.

From 1871 until his resignation (March 17, 1890), the de facto ruler of the German Empire was Chancellor Prince Otto von Bismarck. The Chancellor understood that Germany, with all her strength, was surrounded by terrible dangers from the outside, that for her the loss of a big war due to geographical and economic conditions is always more dangerous than for any other power, and that defeat for her could be tantamount to the destruction of great power.

His whole policy was aimed at preserving what was extracted, and not at acquiring new. Even when in 1875 he intended to attack France, this was due to Otto von Bismarck's fear of an undoubted future war. He deliberately tried to discount everything that in any way increased the likelihood of a war between Germany and any great power or coalition of powers. The "nightmare of coalitions" was the definition of Otto von Bismarck's state of mind.

After 1871, a new alignment of forces arose in Europe. During the Franco-German war, the unification of the country of Germany was completed, the German Empire arose, the regime of the Second Empire collapsed in France and the Third Republic arose.

The peace treaty was signed on February 26, 1871 at Versailles. The French provinces of Alsace and East Lorraine seceded to Germany. In addition, a huge contribution of 5 billion francs was imposed on France. Then negotiations between Germany and France in Frankfurt am Main led to the signing of the final peace on 10 May.

The Frankfurt Peace Treaty confirmed the annexation of Alsace and East Lorraine to Germany. In addition, Germany further annexed the iron ore region west of Thionville, returning France to the insignificant fortress of Belfort. Thus, the treaty established a new Franco-German border. He also determined the order of payment of the 5-billion contribution. France assumed the costs of maintaining the German occupation forces, which remained on its territory until the final payment of the indemnity.

Russia viewed France as a counterbalance to a united Germany, but having deep contradictions with England in Central Asia, the Near and Middle East, she valued Germany's benevolent position on the Eastern question. Austria-Hungary also counted on German support in Southeast Europe. Otto von Bismarck sought to play the role of mediator in resolving disputes between Russia and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans.

Thus, after the Franco-German war, the diplomatic and military-strategic situation changes sharply: France is losing its role of leader in European affairs, Italy is uniting, Russia is strengthening its position, and most importantly, another new state is being created - the German Empire, which very quickly begins to strengthen their positions and claim hegemony in Europe.

Otto von Bismarck's foreign policy line, which contributed most to the formation of the Triple Alliance, is a very interesting question. Otto von Bismarck himself believed that his main task as an imperial chancellor was to constantly protect the German Empire from outside danger. Accordingly, he assessed internal political conflicts mainly in relation to the sphere of foreign policy, that is, to the possible threat to the empire from international revolutionary movements. The uprising of the Paris Commune in the spring of 1871, which was perceived throughout Europe as the "lightning" of social revolutions, helped Otto von Bismarck to convince Europe of the danger, not for the first time since 1789, emanating from France, and of the need to unite all conservative forces in the face of the coming revolutionary upheavals.

The implementation of politics according to the logic of Otto von Bismarck is closely linked with the existence of the strategic alliance of Germany, Austria and Russia. Moreover, Otto von Bismarck emphasizes its importance precisely as an alliance based on the objective awareness of each of the participating powers of its necessity, and not on the thesis of monarchical and dynastic solidarity (on the contrary, in a number of places Otto von Bismarck complains about the too strong dependence of the foreign policy of monarchical countries from the personal will of the emperors and the presence of certain dynastic interests).

After the Russian-Turkish war, England for a time actually became the owner of the Black Sea straits. She received the island of Cyprus, and her squadron was stationed in the Sea of \u200b\u200bMarmara. British warships could freely enter the Black Sea and threaten the southern shores of Russia, which did not yet have a fleet there. Despite the contradictions, Russia and Germany were tied by economic interests, the kinship of the Romanovs with the Hohenzollerns, monarchical solidarity and fear of revolution. Petersburg counted with the support of Berlin to neutralize Vienna in the Balkans and prevent the British occupation of the Black Sea straits.

Even when the immediate "alliance of the three emperors" collapsed, Otto von Bismarck made great efforts to secure Germany's bilateral relations with Austria and Russia. Otto von Bismarck considers the wars between these three powers to be contrary to any logic or their own interests. In addition, by maintaining good relations with both Austria and Russia, Germany is able to overcome the danger of isolation on the continent, as well as the equally formidable danger of the Kaunitz coalition between Austria, France and Russia. And the fact that in 1879 Otto von Bismarck was inclined to conclude a separate treaty with Austria directed against Russia does not at all mean, according to Otto von Bismarck, a rejection of the "wire to Russia" strategy.

On the contrary, it is precisely the alliance with Russia (and not with Austria, the progressive decline, the contradictory internal political structure and the growing social contradictions within which Otto von Bismarck was well aware) that he devotes the main attention within the framework of his foreign policy doctrine, and if the anti-Russian agreement was signed, then, as Otto von Bismarck emphasizes, it was primarily due to the aggressively Pan-Slavist foreign policy of Russia, which did not correspond to genuine Russian interests, and was emphatically temporary and not durable. Otto von Bismarck repeatedly emphasizes that "there are no such strong contradictions between Russia and Prussia-Germany that they could give rise to a rupture and war."

But after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. relations between Russia and Germany deteriorated. Berlin supported Vienna in the European commissions to establish new borders of the Balkan states, and in connection with the world agrarian crisis began to pursue a protectionist policy. It consisted, in particular, in an almost complete ban on the import of livestock and the imposition of high duties on bread from Russia. Germany also protested against the return of Russian cavalry to the Baltic provinces after the war with Turkey. The "newspaper war" was added to the "customs war". Throughout 1879, Slavophiles accused Germany of "black ingratitude" for Russia's benevolent neutrality during the Franco-German war, while Berlin reminded of its role in the partial preservation of the Treaty of San Stefano.

In St. Petersburg, the mood in favor of rapprochement with France increased, but in the late 1870s and early 1880s. there were no conditions for the implementation of this course. Russia, which was on the brink of war with Britain in Central Asia, was interested in the security of its western borders, and France, which was pursuing an active colonial policy in Africa and Southeast Asia, in turn did not want complications with London and Berlin.

Otto von Bismarck, in conditions of cool relations with Russia, was preparing the conclusion of the Austro-German alliance, the agreement on which was signed on October 7, 1879 (Appendix 1)

Initially, Otto von Bismarck sought from D. Andrássy such an agreement that would be directed both against Russia and against France, but failed. According to the treaty, in the event of an attack by Russia on one of the sides, the other was obliged to come to her aid, and in the event of an attack by another power, the other side had to observe benevolent neutrality, if Russia did not join the attacker.

Otto von Bismarck, who was familiar with the terms of the treaty, made it clear to Alexander II that Russia should not count on Germany's support in the event of the Austro-Russian conflict. The Chancellor insisted on a tripartite alliance of Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary.

The Austro-German treaty of 1879 continued to exist independently of the "Union of the Three Emperors". The Austro-German Treaty of 1879 is an event that is called a landmark in the foreign policy of the German Empire. The Austro-German treaty turned out to be the most durable of all treaties and agreements concluded by Otto von Bismarck. He laid the foundation for the "dual alliance" that lasted until the First World War. So, the initial link in the system of imperialist coalitions, strangling each other in the world struggle, was created by Otto von Bismarck 35 years before it began.

In 1882, Italy joined it, dissatisfied with the transformation of Tunisia into a French protectorate.

Here Otto von Bismarck's best diplomatic abilities were shown. While encouraging the French government to seize Tunisia, Otto von Bismarck made a clever diplomatic maneuver. He brought Italy and France into a bitter struggle over this piece of North Africa. Paradoxical as it sounds, but by providing France with diplomatic support against Italy, Otto von Bismarck made Italians his allies. He, one might say, drove the small Italian predator into his political camp. At the time of the capture of Tunisia by the French, the ministry of B. Cairoli was in power in Italy. B. Cairoli was an ardent supporter of the annexation of Trieste and Tretino, which remained under the rule of the Habsburgs.

Shortly before the invasion of French troops in Tunisia, Cairoli publicly assured the alarmed Parliament that France would never commit such a perfidious act, when this step was nevertheless taken, B. Cairoli resigned. As he left, he announced that in his person the last Francophile ministry in Italy was leaving the scene. The conflict with France prompted Italy to seek rapprochement with the Austro-German bloc. The strong ruggedness of the coast of Italy made it especially vulnerable to the British fleet, so allies were needed, especially in view of the possible aggravation of relations with England, with the beginning of the African colonial policy by Italy. To make up elsewhere what it missed in Tunisia, Italy could only rely on a strong military power. Otto von Bismarck disparagingly but aptly referred to the Italians as jackals that sneak after larger predators.

In January 1882, the Italian ambassador Bove turned to Otto von Bismarck with a wish on behalf of his government to strengthen Italy's ties with Germany and Austria-Hungary for Germany Italy was in the past an ally, for Austria an enemy. This circumstance was taken into account by Otto von Bismarck when he formulated his answer to the ambassador. Bismarck expressed doubts about the possibility of formalizing friendly relations between the three countries in the form of a written agreement and rejected the ambassador's request to draw up his draft, but he did not completely reject this idea. Especially persistently sought an alliance with the Italian king Humbert I and the industrial bourgeoisie of Italy, seeking to protect themselves from French competition, advocated an alliance with Germany, but Otto von Bismarck let them know that "Italy can find the keys to German doors only in Vienna." Russia Germany Emperor Entente

No matter how difficult it was for him, the Italian government decided to make an attempt to get closer to Austria. In January 1881, an Italian secret agent also appeared in Vienna. The addiction to secret agents instead of the usual methods of diplomatic communication was not accidental. It showed the weakness of Italy; from this weakness stemmed the Italian government's lack of confidence in itself and the fear of embarrassment if its advances were rejected. In view of this, it tried to act in the least formal ways.

For Austria, rapprochement with the Italians promised the provision of a rear in case of war with Russia. Therefore, Vienna, after a series of delays, agreed to an alliance with Italy, no matter how much the Austrian court despised this country. Otto von Bismarck needed Italy to isolate France. All this led to the signing of an alliance agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (Appendix 2).

A secret treaty between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was signed on May 20, 1882 and was named the Triple Alliance. Concluded for five years, it was repeatedly extended and lasted until 1915. The parties to the treaty pledged not to take part in any alliances or agreements directed against one of them. Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to help Italy if she was attacked by France, and Italy pledged to do the same in the event of an unprovoked French attack on Germany. As for Austria-Hungary, it was exempted from providing assistance to Germany against France, it was assigned the role of a reserve in case Russia entered the war.

In the event of an unprovoked attack on one or two parties to the treaty of two or more great powers, all three states enter the war with them. If England is one of the powers that attacked Italy's partners, then Rome is freed from military assistance to its allies (the shores of Italy were easily vulnerable to the British navy).

In the event of an unprovoked attack on one of the parties to the treaty by one of the great powers not participating in this treaty (except France), the other two parties pledged to maintain benevolent neutrality towards their ally. Thus, Italy's neutrality was guaranteed in the event of a Russian-Austrian war. Following the signing of the treaty, Germany and Austria-Hungary took note of Italy's declaration, according to which Italy refused military assistance to its allies in the event of a war with Great Britain. In 1887, additions were made to the agreement in favor of Italy: she was promised the right to participate in resolving issues related to the Balkans, Turkish shores, islands in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. In 1891, the decision was recorded to support Italy in its claims in North Africa (Cyrenaica, Tripoli, Tunisia).

In the event of a general participation in the war, the powers pledged not to conclude a separate peace and to keep the treaty secret. The treaty of 1882 existed in parallel with the Austro-German alliance of 1879 and the "Union of Three Emperors" in 1881. Having become the center of the three unions, Germany was able to exert a tremendous influence on international relations. Romania joined the Austro-German bloc. In 1883, she concluded a secret treaty with Austria-Hungary, according to which Austria-Hungary pledged to provide assistance to Romania in the event of an attack by Russia. The Romanian ruling elite tied itself with the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, because of the fear of Russia's seizure of the Black Sea straits, which could lead to Russian domination over the economic life of Romania, on the other, because of the desire to increase the territory of the Romanian state at the expense of Bessarabia, and also Silistria, Shumla and other Bulgarian cities and regions. The formation of the Triple Alliance marked the beginning of the formation of those military coalitions that later clashed in the First World War. The German military sought to use the Triple Alliance to carry out their aggressive designs against France. Such an attempt was made at the end of January 1887, when in Germany it was decided to call 73 thousand reservists for training camps. Lorraine was appointed the place of collection. Inspired articles appeared in newspapers about France's allegedly intensified preparations for a war with Germany. Crown Prince Frederick, future Emperor Frederick III, wrote in his diary on January 22, 1887 that, according to Otto von Bismarck, the war with France is closer than he expected. However, the German Chancellor failed to secure Russia's neutrality in the event of a Franco-German conflict. And the war with France without the confidence that Russia will not intervene in the conflict, Otto von Bismarck always considered dangerous and risky for Germany.

The emergence of the Triple Alliance in the center of Europe, the continuing deterioration of Franco-German relations, which reached the greatest tension by 1887, required the French government to quickly find ways to get out of the political isolation created for France. For a weakened France, in need of peace and at the same time not abandoning the thought of revenge, it took time to eliminate the consequences of the war of 1870-1871. French politicians clearly understood that if a new war with Germany arises (and the danger of a new aggression from Germany was quite real), then France needs to have reliable allies, because single combat with the German armed forces will not bring success. And France saw such an ally, first of all, in the largest state located in the east of Europe - in Russia, with which France began to seek cooperation the very next day after the signing of the Frankfurt Peace Treaty.

At the end of 1870. the struggle between the great powers and their allies for the final division of the spheres of influence in the world is becoming more acute. The main reason for the strengthening of colonial expansion was the rapid growth caused by the emergence of new technologies industrial production in Western countries, which determined the desire of governments to find new markets for the export of capital, and the sale of finished products. An equally important task was the seizure of sources of raw materials, the free exploitation of which allowed the industries of these countries to constantly increase production volumes without attracting additional funds.

Having received the opportunity to solve economic problems through the unlimited exploitation of colonies and dependent countries, the governments of many European powers were able to soften internal social contradictions by redistributing the income received. This allowed the most economically developed metropolitan countries of Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and Belgium to avoid the social upheavals that Russia, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain and Portugal faced. The latter, for a number of reasons, have not been able to economically master and effectively exploit the markets of their equally vast territorial possessions. At the same time, most of these states, compensating for their economic weakness by military force, managed to take an active part in the struggle for the final division of spheres of influence in the world in the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

For this reason, despite the difference in the methods of expansion, all these countries can be ranked among the colonial empires, because their policy was based on the desire to seize or take control of the largest possible territory, in relation to the population of which the Europeans pledged to carry out a "civilizing mission" ...

Thus, the active trade, economic and military-political penetration of Western states into all regions of Asia and Africa was the final stage in the formation of the world economic system, within which the competition between the great powers continued for control over the most profitable both in the economic and military strategically by territories. By the end of the XIX century. much of the Southern Hemisphere was divided between the great powers and their allies. Only a very few countries managed to maintain formal sovereignty, although they also fell into complete economic dependence on the colonial empires. This happened with Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, China, Korea, Siam, Ethiopia, which, thanks to the strong centralized power and the tough government policy towards national minorities, managed to avoid the fate of India, Burma, Vietnam and other feudal states, which fell apart and captured colonialists. The sovereignty of individual countries (Liberia, Uryankhai Territory) was guaranteed by the great powers (USA, Russia).

Especially important in this regard are the aggravated contradictions between Germany and Great Britain - by and large the main factor in the international situation.

The alliance between Russia and France was dictated not only by the common military-strategic interests of both powers, by the presence of a threat from common enemies. By that time, a solid economic foundation was already in place for the union. Russia since the 70s. desperately needed free capital to invest in industry and railway construction, France, on the contrary, did not find a sufficient number of facilities for its own investment and actively exported its capital abroad. It was since then that the share of French capital in the Russian economy gradually began to grow. For 1869-1887 17 foreign enterprises were founded in Russia, 9 of them are French.

French financiers made very productive use of the deterioration in Russian-German relations. The economic prerequisites for the union also had a special military-technical aspect. Already in 1888, the brother of Alexander III, who came to Paris on an unofficial visit, Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich managed to place a mutually beneficial order for the manufacture of 500 thousand rifles for the Russian army at French military factories.

The cultural prerequisites for an alliance between Russia and France were long-standing and strong. No other country has had such a powerful cultural impact on Russia as France. The names of F. Voltaire and J.J. Rousseau, A. Saint-Simon and C. Fourier, V. Hugo and O. Balzac, J. Cuvier and P.S. Laplace, J.L. David and O. Rodin, J. Wiese and C. Gounod were known to every educated Russian. In France, they always knew less about Russian culture than in Russia - about French. But since the 80s. the French, like never before, become familiar with Russian cultural values. In the conditions of growing rapprochement between Russia and France, advocates of an active offensive policy against Germany advocated an alliance in both countries. In France, as long as she was defensive against Germany, an alliance with Russia was not a burning need. Now, when France has recovered from the consequences of the defeat of 1870 and the question of revenge has arisen on the order of the day for French foreign policy, among its leaders (including President S. Carnot and Prime Minister Charles Freycinet) the course of alliance with Russia has sharply prevailed.

In Russia, meanwhile, the government was pushed towards an alliance with France by the landlords and the bourgeoisie, hurt by the economic sanctions of Germany and therefore advocating a turn of the domestic economy from German to French loans. In addition, wide (politically very different) circles of the Russian public were interested in the Russian-French union, which took into account the entire set of mutually beneficial prerequisites for this union. In society, in the government and even in the royal court, a "French" party began to take shape. The famous "white general" M.D. Skobelev.

True, the "German" party was also strong at court and in the government of Russia: Minister of Foreign Affairs N.K. Gire, his closest assistant and future successor V.N. Lamsdorf, Minister of War P.S. Vannovsky, ambassadors to Germany P.A. Saburov and Pavel Shuvalov. In terms of influence on the tsar and the government, as well as in energy, persistence and "caliber" of composition, the "German" party was inferior to the "French", but on the other hand, a number of objective factors that hindered the Russian-French rapprochement affected the former.

The first was the geographical factor of remoteness. Differences in their state and political systems hindered the union between Russia and France more. Therefore, the Russian-French alliance took shape, although steadily, but slowly and difficult. It was preceded by a number of preliminary steps towards rapprochement between the two countries - steps reciprocal, but more active on the part of France.

Otto von Bismarck entered into an alliance with Austria in 1879, an alliance with Italy in 1882 (thus creating the Triple Alliance), in order to have support in case of war with Russia or France. He strongly encouraged the aggressive policy of France in Africa and Asia, firstly, in order to distract the French from the thought of revenge - on the re-conquest of Alsace and Lorraine, and secondly, in order to thereby contribute to the deterioration of relations between France and Britain and Italy. Finally, he very sparingly and reluctantly went to the creation of German colonies, in order, in turn, not to get involved in dangerous quarrels with the great sea power - England. This policy of abstinence and caution demanded many sacrifices, which irritated the ruling circles of Germany. But Otto von Bismarck, yielding to them, still tried to concede as little as possible.

Using the idea of \u200b\u200bmonarchical solidarity in maintaining "order" in Europe, in 1873 Otto von Bismarck succeeded in creating the "Union of three emperors" - Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. The agreement was of a consultative nature, but Germany's role in international relations immediately increased. Nevertheless, Soyuz was not, and could not be, stable. The contradictions between its participants were too significant. And although in 1881 the agreement was renewed, and already in the form of a treaty of neutrality, by the mid-1980s. Soyuz has completely exhausted its capabilities.

After the Russian-Turkish war at the Berlin Congress of 1878, Germany did not support Russia's claims in the Balkans. In turn, Russia refused to remain neutral in the event of a war between Germany and France. This three times (in 1875, in 1885 and 1887) deterred Otto von Bismarck from a new attack on France. In addition, after the mutual increase in customs duties on the import of goods between Germany and Russia in the late 70s. a real customs war began.

The deterioration of relations with Russia led to the military-political rapprochement between Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1879, the governments of the two countries entered into a secret alliance agreement, which provided for mutual assistance in the event of an attack by Russia on any of these states and benevolent neutrality in war with any other European country, unless Russia joined it. Defensive in form, the treaty was aggressive in nature, as it provided for a real situation in which, in the event of a military conflict between Germany and France, in case of assistance to the latter from Russia, Germany would receive Austrian support, and the war would acquire a European scale.

Undoubtedly, Otto von Bismarck was the only outstanding diplomat in the German Empire. He was a representative of the Prussian Junkers and the German bourgeoisie during the struggle for the national unification of Germany, and then for the consolidation of the state he had created. He lived and acted in an era when imperialism was far from taking shape.

A distinctive feature of Otto von Bismarck's foreign policy activity was its aggressive nature. When Otto von Bismarck saw the enemy in front of him, the Chancellor's first move was to find his most vulnerable spots in order to hit them as hard as possible. For Otto von Bismarck, pressure and blow were a means not only to defeat the enemy, but also to make friends for himself. To ensure the ally's loyalty, Otto von Bismarck always held a stone in his bosom against him. If he did not have a suitable stone at his disposal, he tried to intimidate his friends with all sorts of imaginary troubles that he supposedly could cause them.

If pressure did not help, or for all his ingenuity, Otto von Bismarck could not find any means of pressure or blackmail, he turned to another of his favorite methods - bribery, most often at someone else's expense. Gradually, he developed a kind of standards for bribes, he bought the British with assistance in Egyptian financial affairs, the Russians - by providing assistance or freedom of action in one or another of the eastern problems, the French - by support in the seizure of a wide variety of colonial territories. Otto von Bismarck had a large arsenal of such "gifts".

Less willingly Otto von Bismarck used such a diplomatic device as a compromise. This was not his style. Otto von Bismarck was a great realist. He liked to talk about monarchist solidarity when it was needed. However, this did not prevent him from supporting the republicans in France, and in 1873 in Spain, as opposed to the monarchists, since then he believed that the republican governments in these countries, from the point of view of the German Empire, would be the most convenient

Otto von Bismarck did not give room for feelings in his policy, but always tried to be guided exclusively by calculation. If some feeling sometimes interfered with his logic, then more often it was anger. Anger and hatred were perhaps the only emotions that could sometimes divert the chancellor from the path of cold and sober calculation - and then only for a while.

Another trait of Otto von Bismarck's character was exceptional activity. The first chancellor of the German Empire was an energetic, extremely active person who literally did not know rest. Simplicity did not belong to the peculiarities of Bismarck's policy, despite the fact that its goal was usually expressed with the utmost clarity Otto von Bismarck almost always clearly knew what he wanted, and was able to develop an amazing exertion of will to achieve his goal. Sometimes he walked to her right through, but more often - in complex, sometimes confusing, dark, always varied and restless ways.

Foreign policy caught the eye of Otto von Bismarck. One of the reasons that led directly to his resignation was the disagreement between the chancellor and the kaiser on the issue of attitude towards Russia.

General Waldersee, who replaced the decrepit General von Moltke as chief of the German General Staff in 1888, continued to insist on a preventive war against Russia. The young Kaiser was inclined towards this point of view. Otto von Bismarck considered the war against Russia disastrous.

Sometimes in Western historiography, Otto von Bismarck is portrayed as almost a friend of Russia. This is not true, he was her enemy, since he saw in her the main obstacle to German supremacy in Europe. Otto von Bismarck always tried to harm Russia, trying to drag her into conflicts with England and Turkey, but the Chancellor was smart enough to understand what a huge power lurks in the Russian people. Harming Russia in every way, Otto von Bismarck tried to do it with someone else's hands.

The lines dedicated to the problem of the Russian-German war by Otto von Bismarck sound a formidable warning. "This war with the gigantic size of its theater would be full of dangers," said Otto von Bismarck. "The examples of Charles XII and Napoleon prove that the most capable commanders only hardly get out of expeditions to Russia." And Otto von Bismarck believed that a war with Russia would be a "great disaster" for Germany. Even if military fortune smiled at Germany in the fight against Russia, then even then "the geographical conditions would make it infinitely difficult to bring this success to the end."

But Otto von Bismarck went further. He not only realized the difficulties of the war with Russia, but also believed that if, even contrary to expectations, Germany managed to achieve complete success in a purely military sense of the word, then even then it would not have achieved a real political victory over Russia, because it is impossible to defeat the Russian people. Polemising with supporters of an attack on Russia, Otto von Bismarck wrote in 1888: “One could argue about this if such a war, indeed, could lead to the fact that Russia would be defeated. But such a result even after the most brilliant victories lies beyond all likelihood.Even the most favorable outcome of the war will never lead to the disintegration of the main force of Russia, which is based on millions of Russians proper ... These latter, even if dismembered by international treatises, will just as quickly reunite with each other like particles of a cut piece of mercury This indestructible state of the Russian nation is strong in its climate, in its spaces and limited needs ... ". These lines by no means indicate the chancellor's sympathy for Russia. They talk about something else - Otto von Bismarck was careful and perspicacious.

Bismarck was to a large extent a kind of personification of the alliance of the bourgeoisie with the Junkers. But as imperialist tendencies matured in Germany's economy and politics, his policy increasingly became the policy of "state capitalism

Bismarck's policy was aimed at preserving what was extracted, and not at acquiring new. He intended to attack France, this was explained by Otto von Bismarck's fear of an undoubted future war. He deliberately tried to discount everything that in any way increased the likelihood of a war between Germany and any great power or coalition of powers.

Over time, using the Italian-French colonial rivalry, Otto von Bismarck was able to attract Italy to the coalition. In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy concluded a secret allied treaty of mutual assistance in the event of a war with France and joint action in the event of an attack on one of the participants of two or more European countries. This is how the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy emerged, which marked the beginning of the split of Europe into warring military groups.

Deftly playing on the differences of European states, the Triple Alliance soon succeeded in winning over Romania and Spain. Nevertheless, all attempts by Otto von Bismarck and his successors to achieve participation in the alliance of England were fruitless. Despite the sharp colonial contradictions with France and Russia, England, as before, did not want to bind herself with a treaty with any European state, remaining true to the policy of "brilliant isolation".

However, the likely annexation of England to the German-Austrian bloc hastened the military-political rapprochement between France and Russia. In 1891, the Franco-Russian alliance was formalized in a consultative pact, and in 1892, representatives of the general staffs of both countries signed a secret military convention on joint actions in the event of a war with Germany. The convention, which was to remain in force for the entire duration of the Triple Alliance, was ratified at the end of 1893 and beginning of 1894.

90s XIX century. characterized by a sharp intensification of German foreign policy and a change in its direction. The rapid development of industry, which outgrew the possibilities of the internal market, forced the ruling circles of the country to support German trade expansion in Europe, to look for "new independent territories" for the sale of goods. Having embarked on the path of colonial conquests later than other countries, Germany was significantly inferior to them in terms of the size of the occupied territories. The German colonies were twelve times smaller than the British, and in addition, poor in raw materials. The imperial leadership was acutely worried about such "injustice" and, activating colonial policy, for the first time raised the question of redistributing the world already divided by European countries.

Germany's transition to world politics was embodied in its claims to dominance in Europe, its desire to gain a foothold in the Near, Middle and Far East, its desire to redistribute spheres of influence in Africa. The main direction of German expansion was the Middle East. In 1899, the Kaiser obtained consent from the Turkish Sultan to build a transcontinental railroad, which was supposed to connect Berlin and Baghdad, after which the active penetration of German capital into the Balkans, Anatolia and Mesopotamia began.

The advance of the Germans to the east and the undisguised territorial claims of Germany led to a sharp aggravation of her relations with the largest colonial state in the world - England. By the beginning of the XX century. Anglo-German contradictions are becoming central to the system of international relations. The economic, political and colonial rivalry between the two countries was complemented by a naval arms race. By deploying the construction of a powerful navy in 1898, Germany challenged the "mistress of the seas" by threatening her intermediary trade and ties with the colonies.

For a long time, confident in the invulnerability of England's insular position and the superiority of its navy, British diplomats considered it the best foreign policy not to tie their hands with alliances with other states, to encourage conflicts between them and benefit from these conflicts for England. To preserve the "European equilibrium," Great Britain usually opposed the strongest continental state, preventing it from taking a dominant position in Europe.

However, the deterioration of the country's international position at the beginning of the XX century. forced the British government to change its foreign policy. A sharp increase in the military and naval power of Germany, its overt territorial claims created a real threat to the existence of the British Empire. The policy of isolation became dangerous, and British diplomacy began to seek allies on the continent in a future clash with Germany.

In 1904, after the settlement of mutual colonial claims in Africa, England entered into a military-political agreement with France, which was called the Entente ("Hearty Agreement"). In 1907, the Entente became triple: having signed with Britain a convention on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet, Russia also joined it. Thus, as a result of the agreements of 1904-1907. a military-political bloc of three states was finally formed, opposing the countries of the Triple Alliance.

The formation of the Entente in 1904 was a serious warning to Germany in her expansionist plans. On the eve of the inevitable clash with England, the Franco-Russian alliance of 1891-1893 became much more dangerous for her. Therefore, the Kaiser and German diplomacy have repeatedly made attempts to break the hostile environment, inspiring an exacerbation of Anglo-Russian disagreements and inciting the distrust of the ruling circles of Russia towards France.

After France had established a "cordial agreement" with England, it remained only to close the ends: to convince England and Russia of the need for rapprochement. It was not an easy task.

Anglo-Russian relations after the Crimean War were very tense. Despite Russia's defeat in this war, Britain continued to be concerned about its activity in areas of British interest. The British were also worried about the prospect of the Russians taking possession of the Black Sea straits. After all, it was from the Mediterranean that the shortest route to India began - the Suez Canal. The defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War and the revolution of 1905-1907. finally convinced England that it was not Russia that now posed a threat to British interests. England, like France, needed a military alliance against Germany more than Russia. Therefore, the old Russian-British differences in the face of general German aggression were settled. In 1907, England and Russia managed to agree on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet. So in 1907. Russia joined the Entente.

The results of the development of international relations from 1871 to 1893 can be summed up in the words of Engels: "The major military powers of the continent were divided into two large camps that threaten each other: Russia and France on the one hand, Germany and Austria on the other." England remained outside these two blocks for the time being; she continued to build her policy on their contradictions. At the same time, until the mid-90s. its diplomacy gravitated more towards the German grouping, although objectively Anglo-German antagonism had been growing for quite a long time.

Therefore, in his work, V.P. Potemkin - "History of Diplomacy" put it this way: "If the imperialist struggle for colonies and spheres of influence is overlooked as a factor of the impending world war, if the imperialist contradictions between Britain and Germany are also overlooked, if the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany as a factor of war , is relegated to the background before the striving of Russian tsarism towards Constantinople as a more important and even determining factor in the war, if, finally, Russian tsarism is the last stronghold of all-European reaction, then is it not clear that the war, say, between bourgeois Germany and tsarist Russia is not an imperialist, not a predatory, not an anti-people war, but a war of liberation, or almost liberation?

After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, using the family ties of the Romanovs and the Hohenzollerns, Wilhelm II increased pressure on Nicholas II, arguing in correspondence that France's neutrality during the war borders on treason, and that the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 was aimed at against Russia. During a personal meeting in Bjork (Finland) in 1905, he managed to convince the Russian emperor to conclude a secret treaty of mutual assistance with Germany, however, this diplomatic success remained unsuccessful. Under pressure from the highest dignitaries of the empire, Nicholas II was soon forced to cancel this agreement. The attempt of German diplomacy to tear Russia away from its allies in the Entente during the Potsdam meeting of the two emperors in 1910 turned out to be just as in vain.

By inciting disagreements between European states, Germany sought, among other things, to ensure for itself unhindered penetration into the Middle East. At the same time, she tried to establish herself in North Africa, claiming a part of Morocco, which had not yet been captured by Europeans. Nevertheless, on the European "colonial stock exchange" Morocco has long been recognized as a sphere of French interests, and William II's interference in Moroccan affairs in 1905 caused a sharp aggravation of international relations. The Moroccan crisis almost led to the outbreak of a European war, but the conflict was overcome through diplomacy. The international conference convened in Algeciras (Spain) in 1906, contrary to the expectations of the Germans, recognized France's priority rights in Morocco.

In 1911, taking advantage of the unrest in the Fez region, France, under the pretext of "appeasement", brought its troops into the Moroccan hundred. This caused an unexpected demarche in Germany. "After a noisy campaign in the press demanding the partition of Morocco, the German government sent the gunboat Panther and then a light cruiser to its shores, provoking a second Moroccan crisis." The French government took the Panther Leap as a challenge and was ready to defend its colonial "rights." However, the war that threatened to acquire European proportions did not start this time either. The decisive declaration of the British government about its readiness to fight on the side of France forced Germany to retreat and recognize a French protectorate over most of Morocco.

The Bosnian crisis of 1908 also led to an acute international conflict. Under the terms of the Berlin Treaty of 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary, but formally remained part of the Ottoman Empire. After the Young Turkish Revolution of 1908, the Austrian government concluded that the moment had come for the final annexation of these two Slavic provinces. At the same time, Russia's consent was secured by a promise to support its demands regarding the opening of the Black Sea straits for Russian warships. But this promise was never fulfilled, since neither Britain nor France supported Russia's claims. At the same time, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina strengthened the Austrian positions in the Balkans and dealt a strong blow to the national liberation movement of the South Slavs.

The annexation provoked a sharp protest from Serbia, which publicly declared disrespect for the rights of the Slavic peoples and demanded that Austria-Hungary grant political autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was supported by Russia, proposing to convene an international conference to resolve the Bosnian problem. Nevertheless, Russia's allies in the Entente took a neutral position, and the German government openly offered Russia to confirm the annexation and force Serbia to do so. Having received an ultimatum warning from Berlin that in case of refusal, Germany would support Austria-Hungary in an attack on Serbia, and left alone, Russia was forced to yield.

Italy also took advantage of the weakening of the once powerful Ottoman Empire, which had long encroached on its possessions in North Africa. Having enlisted the support of large European states, in 1911 it began military operations against Turkey and captured two of its provinces - Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Political isolation and the beginning of a new crisis in the Balkans forced the Turkish government to make concessions, and under the Lausanne Peace Treaty, Turkey renounced the rights to Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, which became part of the Italian possessions in North Africa called Libya. Under the treaty, Italy pledged to return the occupied Dodecanese Islands to Turkey, but never fulfilled the promise.

The aggravation of international relations at the beginning of the 20th century, the confrontation between two warring military-political blocs - the Triple Alliance and the Entente - was accompanied by an unprecedented arms race. The parliaments of European countries, one after another, are passing laws on additional appropriations for the rearmament and increase in the number of armies, the development of fleets, and the creation of military aviation. Thus, in France in 1913 a law was passed on three-year military service, which increased the size of the French army in peacetime to 160 thousand people. In Germany, in the five pre-war years (1909-1914), military spending increased by 33% and accounted for half of the entire state budget. In 1913, its army consisted of 666 thousand people.

Table 1

The degree of militarization of European countries in the 80s XIX - early XX century

Long before the start of the war, the British government began to intensively arm the country. In the ten pre-war years, Britain's military expenditures tripled. Created in 1910, the Imperial Defense Committee developed an empire-wide strategic plan. Along with the strengthening of the fleet in England, an army was created, ready, if necessary, for battles on the continent.

An onerous naval arms race prompted British diplomacy to make a final attempt to reach a compromise with Germany.

For this purpose, in 1912, the Minister of War, Lord Holden, was sent to Berlin, who suggested that the German government end the competition in the construction of battleships in exchange for colonial concessions in Africa.

But England's desire to preserve its naval superiority at all costs doomed Holden's mission to failure. Germany was not going to concede in anything to the "mistress of the seas", and by the beginning of 1914 already had at its disposal 232 new warships.

By 1914, Europe was split into two major alliances, into which the six most powerful powers entered. Their confrontation turned into a world war. Britain, France and Russia formed the Entente, and Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy united in the Triple Alliance. The split into alliances aggravated the explosiveness and completely quarreled the countries.

The beginning of the formation of alliances

Having won a series of victories (1862-1871), the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck created a new German state, united from several small principalities. However, Bismarck feared that after the formation of a new state, neighboring countries, especially France and Austria-Hungary, would feel threatened and begin to take action to destroy Germany. Bismarck saw the only way out to create alliances to stabilize and balance forces on the geopolitical map of Europe. He believed that this could stop the inevitability of war for Germany.

Dual union

Bismarck understood that France, as an ally for Germany, was lost. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War and the occupation of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, the French treated the Germans sharply negatively. Britain, on the other hand, sought to dominate and actively obstructed the formation of any alliances, fearing possible competition from their side.

Based on these circumstances, Bismarck decided to turn to Austria-Hungary and Russia. As a result, in 1873, they united in the Union of Three Emperors, whose members guaranteed mutual support if hostilities suddenly began. Five years later, Russia decided to leave the union. The following year, the remaining members of the alliance formed the Dual Alliance and now began to view Russia as a threat. They have agreed to provide military assistance if Russia attacks either them or provides military support to anyone else.

Triple Alliance

In 1881, Italy joined the two countries-members of the alliance, and the Triple Alliance was formed, and France was now added to the list of threat factors. Moreover, the alliance guaranteed that if any of its members is in a state of war with two or more states, the alliance will come to the rescue.

Italy, being the weakest member of the alliance, insisted on including an additional clause in the treaty stating that it has the right to withdraw from it if the Triple Alliance acts as an aggressor. Soon after, Italy signed a treaty with France, pledging its support in the event of an attack by Germany.

Reinsurance agreement

Bismarck was frightened by the possibility of a war on two fronts, which meant the settlement of relations either with France or with Russia. With the French, relations between the Germans were severely spoiled, so Bismarck's choice fell on the Russians. The Chancellor proposed that Russia sign a "reinsurance agreement." Under the terms of this treaty, both sides were supposed to remain neutral in the event of a war with a third country.

However, this treaty was valid only until 1890, then the German government canceled it, dismissing Bismarck. Russia tried to keep the treaty in force, but Germany did not want to. This decision is considered the main mistake of Bismarck's successors.

Franco-Russian union

Bismarck's elaborate foreign policy began to crumble after his departure. In an effort to expand the German Empire, Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued a policy of aggressive militarization. The expansion and strengthening of the German fleet caused anxiety in England, France and Russia, which served as the reason for the rallying of these countries. Meanwhile, the new German government proved insufficiently competent to maintain the alliance forged, and Germany soon faced the mistrust and hostility of the European powers.

In 1892, Russia entered into an alliance with France under a secret convention. The conditions of this alliance assumed mutual assistance in the event of war, without imposing other restrictions. The Alliance was created in opposition to the Triple Alliance. Germany's departure from the political course laid out by Bismarck put her in a dangerous position. Now the empire is faced with the threat of a war on two fronts.

The growing tension between the major powers in Europe made Britain think about the need to join one of the alliances. Britain did not support France in the Franco-Prussian War, but the countries nevertheless signed the Entente Cordiale Treaty among themselves in 1904. Three years later, a similar treaty appeared between Great Britain and Russia. In 1912, the Anglo-French Naval Convention made this bond even stronger. The alliance entered into force.

World War

When Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in 1914, the Austro-Hungarian reaction was immediate. In the next few weeks, full-scale war broke out in Europe. The Entente fought the Triple Alliance, which Italy soon left.

The parties to the conflict were confident that the war would be fleeting and end by Christmas 1914, but it lasted 4 long years, during which time the United States was also drawn into the conflict. During the entire period, she claimed the lives of 11 million soldiers and 7 million civilians. The war ended in 1919 with the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty.